Devoted to Agriculture, Horticulture, and the Household Arts. 



xv^v^ww 



Agriculture is the nursing mother of the Arts. 

[XlXOPBON. 



Tillage and Pasturage arc the two breasts of 
the State. — Silly. 



J. E. WILLIAMS, Editor. 



Vol. XX. 



RICHMOND, VA., AUGUST, 1860. 



AUGUST & WILLIAMS, Proi-'rs. 

No. 8. 



For the Sow hern Planter. 

Notes on the Cane-Brake Lands—or the 
Cretaceous Calcareous Region of Ala- 
bama. 

BY EDMUND RUFFIX, OF VIRGINIA. 

The calcareous lands of southern Alaba- 
ma offer, in their agricultural and obvious 
3, a remarkable contrast to all 
the lands of the Atlantic slope of the United 
Stat< s. The contrast will appear still strong- 
er, when the comparison is extended to the 
themical qualities of the soils, and to other 
peculiariti nerally noticed, or open 

to the cun rvaiioo of strangers and 

visit. ■ :i known to old residents and 

practical cultivators. More than twenty 
, when this settlement, 

but little known except to the residents, 
and when neither this nor any other new or 
western state had been visited by me. I 
so much interested in the reports of this 
region, that I endeavored to investigate its 
peculiarities and thi urned, 

then to publish my views of the remarkable : 
soils and other peculiarities of the country, j 
and to account for their existence, in an 
" Inquiry into the Causes of the Formation 
of Prairies, &C." (Farmers' Register, vol.' 
29 



iii.)* It was not until very lately, (in May, 
1858,) when making a first and short visit 
to Alabama, that, (induced by the kind in- 
vitations and attentions of sundry planters 
ta whom I had until then been personally a; 
stranger,) I used the offered facilit: 
examine some of these lands — and to test 
my previous views by personal observation, 
and also by the best information to be ob- 
tained from residents. "Whatever has been. 
thus learned, whether in confirmation of my 
early views and reasoning, or in correction, 
of former mistakes of myself or of others, 
will now be submitted, as a sequel to. and ! 
commentary on my several former publica- 
tions on this general subject.")" 



• Two later and enlarged editions of this 
article have been published since — the la t.^ - 1 in 

niv *• E* -avs and Note 9 on A^ricidtiire." (pub- 
lished by J. W. Randolph. Richmond. 1 Sob.) 

fl had much cause for regret that this sudden 
and hurried vj»it to the fane-brake lands had not 
been :. n I prepared tor by me, by pre- 

vious tn and noting of sundry publica- 

tions on this >ul>jor? in the "Farmers 1 Register," 
by residents • and founded on ac- 

;is well as my own extensive 
comments on and deductions from such writings 
of others. Much rs thi< subject had formerly 
engaged my attention, and labor of inve.-tign- 
tioji, more l ''an twenty years had afterwards 
I, when the first and unexpected oppprtu- 



4)0 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



The whole of the Atlantic slope of the 
United States, so far as I have been enabled 



nity occurred of my seeing these or any similar 
lands. In all that time the suhject was off my 
minu, and never expected to be resumed. It 
may then be believed, even by those who do not 
know the fact that my memory is greatly im- 
paired by age, that I had entirely forgotten 
many particulars which I had formerly studied 
and published, and* partly of my own writing, 
when this first opportunity offered to test and 
verify my opinions formed and presented so 
long ago. And when going to another part of 
Alabama, being still without intention of visit- 
ing the calcareous region, or giving any time to 
personal explorations, I did not carry with me, 
and could not there procure, for reference, any 
of my former publications, or any other, on the 
subject. Even the very necessary and very 
portable aids of a thermometer and a pocket 
map of the country I could not obtain, after the 
need for them was presented. 

While in Marengo county, I heard that the 
lately deceased Professor Tuomey, the State 
Geological Surveyor, had visited and examined 
this region, and that th^* report, made up from 
his papers, had not been then printed. From 
my knowledge of the great ability and industry, 
and fidelity to every trust and duty, of this zeal- 
ous and successful votary of the natural sci- 
ences, I expected that his labors would supply 
much, on geological and chemical questions, 
that I was not qualified to investigate thorough- 
ly. Therefore, in addition to other reasons 
for delay, I withheld this article from publica- 
tion, until after the publication of the second" 
and last report of Professor Tuomey's Survey — 
which was made late in 1858. Much earlier, I 
had read what he said on the calcareous lands 
in his first .report, published in 185Q. 'But the 
litde there embraced on this subject had also 
left no impression on my memory — and I could 
not aga'.n have access to this first report, un- 
til when the last appeared. The lamented 
death of the author had doubtless served to 
cause many important omissions in this portion 
of his subject which, if he had lived, would 
have been ifully and well supplied. And be- 
sides other stated omissions, of parts either not 
written or lost, his editor, Prof. J. W. Mallet, 
states that ik at least one additional chapter 'On 
the results of the Geological Survey in their 
application to Agriculture' was included in the 
design of Professor Tuomey's Report — but of 
this no manuscript has been found."— (p. 168.) 
This chapter, if it had been prepared, would 
probably have contained much of the particular 
observations which I sought in vain in what is 
left to the public of Professor Tuomey's latest 
and always valuable labors. Of the compara- 
tively little that his reports furnish inregard to 
the agricultural characters of the cretaceous bed 
and soils. I will add, in notes, with due acknow- 
ledgement of the source, some information, ad- 
ditional to mine — and also acknowledge some 
matters in which our deductions, or opinions of 
facts, are opposed. 



to examine, and to study by analogy and, 
inference, differs from the best known culti- 
vated lands in the old world, in the remark- 
able fact, that all these soils of eastern 
America are naturally and entirely destitute 
of carbonate of lime, or of that most usual 
combination, or form, of lime which is so 
common, and often so abundant, in most of 
the longest known and formerly described 
soils of England and France. Indeed, so 
common was this ingredient of soil in 
Europe, and often so obvious to the eye, 
(either as chalk or limestone,) that, in the 
general ignorance of agriculture as a sci- 
ence which prevailed even as late as fifty 
years ago, it was a general and undisputed 
belief that all soils contained lime in this 
form. And, ■ as all English agricultural 
opinions were then readily received by the 
few American readers, and applied, without 
examination, to this country, it was not 
questioned here, but fully admitted, by the 
few who then had cast a thought on the 
subject, that the soils of the old States of 
this Union were also generally or universally 
supplied with more or less of carbonate of 
lime.* It was nearly forty years ago, that 
I first came to believe, and then asserted, 
and soon after published, the then entirely 
novel fact of the general (and almost uni- 
versal) and entire absence of carbonate of 
lime as a natural constituent of the soils of 
our Atlantic slope, which (and but a small 
part of that) was the only portion of the 
whole country with which I was then the 
least informed by personal observation, or 
other information. No scientific inquirer 
had before even suspected this remarkable 
faet. But every correct scientific observa- 
tion, made in later times, has served to con- 
firm my then unsupported position. Even 
the mountain u limestone lands," sliowing 
frequently at the surface compact rock of 
nearly pure carbonate of lime, were not ex- 
ceptions to the rule of the absence of that 
ingredient as a constituent of soil. The 
soils surrounding or overlying these rocks, 
and even in contact with them, very rarely 
contained the smallest portion of carbonate 
of lime, of which lime-stone consists almost 
exclusively. There were only a few and 
limited cases of such soils, probably from 
accidental, and certainly rare causes of dis- 



* This particular subject was first and fully 
discussed in the Essay on Calcareous Manures, 
and in all the editions, from first in 1821 to fifth 
in 1803. 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



451 



integration and admixture of portions of 
the adjacent rock, which were slightly im- 
pregnated with carbonate of lime. And so, 
and much more abundantly supplied, were 
some small spaces of soils in the tide-water 
region, where marl-beds cropped out at the 
surface, or elsewhere, that oyster and mus- 
sel shells had in ancient times been accu- 
mulated by the Indians, on the sites of their 
former villages. But with these few and 
small exceptions, (scarcely deserving to be 
mentioned as such,) to the general rule of 
entire absence, there was no carbonate of 
lime in any known specimen of natural soil 
of the Atlantic slope of the United States. 

Before proceeding farther, to prevent mis- 
construction and mistake, I beg that I may 
be understood as maintaining (as to these or 
any other lands) the absence of lime in its 
most usual and abundant form of carbonate 
only — and not of lune generally, and in 
every other form of combination than the 
carbonate. On the contrary, (and as I have 
always maintained,) some small portion of 
lime, and in some other combination most 
generally, exists in every soil that is the 
least productive of perfect vegetable growth 
— and this lime ingredient is generally 
larger in the richer soils. But it is also 
true, and important to be noted, that gene- 
rally, whenever lime as the carbonate is 
entirely absent, it is rarely present in any 
other form of combination in sufficient 
quantity for the wants and highest fertility 
of the soil, and for its best subsequent 
improvement; and that it is especially defi- 
cient, in any and every form of combina- 
tion, throughout the whole Atlantic slope, 
in all naturally poor soils. 

After having been fully impressed with 
these views, it was, at a later time, a new 
subject for surprise to me to learn, as I did, 
first by report, and next by partial analyses 
of many hard specimens, that a large ex- 
tent of the soils of the Gulf slope, in Ala- 
bama and Mississippi, not only contained 
carbonate of lime in large proportion, but 
that the too great quantity in many cases 
had already been injurious, and, as I in- 
ierred, in many more cases, was likely to 
produce future impoverishment and sterility. 
To this excess of carbonate of lime I then 
ascribed, and still ascribe, the absence of 
trees on the true prairies, or what were 
there termed the "bald prairies" of Alaba- 
ma and Mississippi; and the much more 
extended observations of travellers and resi- 



dents, in later times, and in the more west- 
ern and southern territory west of the 
Mississippi river, and in Texas, have served 
to prove, by numerous facts, positions which 
T had formerly asserted mainly upon infer- 
ence and reasoning. I will not here repeat 
my former argument, nor adduce new evi- 
dences of what was then correctly inferred 
and maintained. My present purpose is to 
•escribe, upon the surer ground of personal 
observation, and by correction of the mis- 
takes of residents, the distinctive and pecu- 
liar agricultural features of this remarkable 
region. 

For my first invitation, and facilities 
offered for my examinations, I was indebted 
to the liberal courtesy of Col. Charles Pol- 
lard, President of the new Montgomery 
and Pensacola Railroad, which was then 
completed from Montgomery for about 30 
miles into Lowndes county, and mostly 
through the former "prairie" or calcareous 
lands. A special train was sent to convey 
me and a number of other invited guests, 
and placed at my order, to travel slow, and 
to stop when desired, so as to enable me 
best to see the bordering lands. After- 
wards, on the invitation of Col. James L. 
Price, President of the Alabama and Mis- 
sissippi Railroad, I passed over that road, 
from Selma to near Union Town; and by 
his hospitable attention a-nd aid, and that of 
Richard H. Adams, es'q., of Marengo, espe- 
cially, I was enabled to see and learn much 
of the lands of Perry, Dallas, and Marengo. 

The* central and most marked portion of 
the calcareous region of Alabama is in 
Marengo; and that, more especially, was 
formerly known, and is still commonly re- 
ferred to, as the "cane-brake land." But 
the same general qualities, and also that 
general designation, extend to all the neigh- 
boring and surrounding country. The soils 
of the region in question are caused to be 
generally calcareous, by the out-cropping 
there of the cretaceous lime-rock. This 
cretaceors region is a broad belt, extending 
across the state from east to west, (and 
further stretching into both Georgia on one 
side and across the state of Mississippi on 
the other,). and lying somewhat southward 
of the middle of Alabama. Still farther 
south, this cretaceous bed disappears below 
the there highest of tertiary eocene marl — 
which is even more highly calcareous than 
the former —and from its description, seems 
to be of the same character of the " Grea t 



45: 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



P 



Carolina Bed" of Eocene of lower South 
Carolina. This is merely mentioned here 
to prevent any of my remarks being applied 
to this more southern or eocene marl region, 
which, in Alabama, I did not visit. The 
region of the exposed cretaceous formation 
includes, wholly or in part, the counties 
of Russell, Barbour, Macon, Montgomery, 
Lowndes, Willcox, Dallas, Perry, Marengo, 
Sumpter, Greene, and Pickens. When th 
first settlements of Alabama were begun, ii 
1817, nearly all tnis broad space was cover- 
ed by a thick under-growth of cane, which 
was the more dense and tall in Marengo. 
The cane is very like the reed of lower Vir- 
ginia, and not readily distinguishable from 
it by cursory observation.' But those per- 
sons who are well acquainted with both 
plants, know the differences. The cane not 
only grows to much larger sizes, (under the 
favorable conditions of rich soil and warm 
climate,) but it also covers, and flourishes 
on, high and dry, as well as moister lands ; 
whereas the reed grows only on very wet 
and swampy ground. When the first white 



in winter, supplied by surface rain-water 
only, and which ceased to be streams through 
all the dryer and much longer portion of 
every year. The scarcity of water forbade 
the Indians making this region a continuous 
dwelling-place, or even a long continued 
camp— -and this scarcity presented the great- 
est obstacles to settlement, and was the 
cause of long, continued suffering-— before 
being removed — to the earlier white settlers, 
many of whom still dwell on their earliest- 
clearings, and remember well the former 
want of and suffering for water. 

The great distinctive feature of this- 
"cane-brake," or calcareous region, is the 
universal under-bed of soft and very rich 
calcareous rock, or hard marl, which some- 
times is very near to, or actually exposed at 
the surface, and more generally is to be 
reached at a few feet below the surface — 
and is found almost everywhere within fif- 
teen or eighteen feet. The upper layer of 
this rock is usually, but not always, the soft- 
est, and may be considered as a rich com- 
pact marl— not too hard to be dug easily, 



pioneers and settlers entered this region, This is of a dingy, yellowish white color, 
they could scarcely penetrate through the Below this, and usually within a few feet of 
close and general covering of cane on the the surface of the higher, is a universal bed 

of still more compact marl, or soft marl- 
stone, of very uniform texture and other 
characters. This is bluish when moist in its- 
bed, and nearly white when dug up and ex- 
posed to dry air. Though very c:mpact r 
and much more difficult to dig, yet when 
exposed on the surface to the air and rains, 
this disintegrates completely, and, in one or 
two years, becomes in texture a finely redu- 
ced earth. This compact bed of the lower 
marl or soft limestone, along its northern 
border, thins out until it is lost, the inferior 
bed there rising to and occupying the same 
face. But as proceeding southward, the 
cretaceous rock becomes thicker, and is near- 
ly, if not exceeding, 1000 feet where thick- 
est and near the southern line of its surface 
exposure. The numerous Artesian wells 
have to pass through this solid bed to obtain 
water from the sand beds below ; and there- 
fore the depth of the bottom of the creta- 
ceous marl has been ascertained in many 
places, and throughout nearly the whole re- 
gion. Thus it has been learned that the 
general gentle dip towards the south, is by 
no means regular, and the under surface of 
the cretaceous bed is a plane far from uni- 
form. At Selma, borings of 400 feet bring 
up water — while in a more southern part of 



calcareous and richest land. And at a later 
time, the most frequented roads through the 
richest lands were covered across by the 
leaning and overhanging and interlocked 
tops of the tall canes, growing on each side, 
rendering the passage of travellers slow and 
difficult. Tall trees over-topped the cane 
growth everywhere, except on the compara- 
tively small spaces of "bald prairie." There 
are now but few and scant remains of this 
former general dense cover of tall cane — 
and only in such spots as, from some acci- 
dental causes, have not been cultivated, and 
yet, being enclosed, are protected from the 
access of grazing animals. The leaves of 
the cane furnish excellent food for cattle, 
and through the winter. Therefore, the 
numerous cattle introduced and kept by the 
white settlers, in the course of time, have 
destroyed and kept down the growth of 
cane in the woods and grazing waste lands, 
as cultivation has eradicated it on the en- 
closed field*. 

The only water, then, to be obtained in 
summer, was in a i'cw ponds, or small lakes, 
which have dried up since the general clear- 
ing and tillage of the country, and in the 
small dctatched and temporary pools along 
the bottoms of what had been water-courses 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



453 



tin* same county, Dallas, at 700 loot, the 
bottom of the marl had not been reached. 
The present upper surface of the bed, (form- 
ed by ancient denudation, and forming a 
very acute angle with the plane of the un- 
der side, is much more nearly horizontal, 
but still dipping, or sloping downward to- 
wards the south and gulf coast. The extent 
and character of this thick cretaceous bed 
arc enough to explain the causes why there 
should be neither natural springs nor streams 
in all this couutry - } and also, why, with 
very clayey and close-textured surface soils 
and sub-soils, that every considerable rain 
should render the ground very wet, and a 
universal adhesive mire, from which the ab- 
sorbed superfluous water can escape only by 
the slow process of evaporation. This latter 
quality, the effect of an extremely clayey 
and impervious soil, is the great evil of this 
otherwise highly favored region. After 
spells of rain, and during all winter, the 
roads are almost impassable by wheel-carria- 
ges, and the dry est ground is scarcely fit to 
walk upon. The wheels of carriages, on the 
roads, would be soon completely enveloped 
by a tough adhesive mud, usually as black, 
and almost as sticky as pitch, so that with- 
out continual cleaning the mud from the 
wheels, they would soon be entirely cover- 
ed and rendered immovable. And walkers 
would find the load of mud on their feet, in- 
creasing at every step, the most effectual 
of shackles to forbid voluntary exercise on 
foot. Such conditions of the soil and roads, 
I learned only by description, except so far 
as seeing the indications from the very mark- 
ed effect of one hasty and light shower of 
rain on a before very dry surface, which, for 
a few hours, made walking difficult and dis- 
agreeable. Rut there can be no question of 
the great inconvenience, annoyance, and ac- 
tual great loss, in winter, from this peculiar 
condition of the land, being worse than any 
person elsewhere and without information, 
could ever conceive to be possible.* 



* The " cane-brakers" deny, and treat as a ca- 
lumnious charge of out-siders on their fine coun- 
try, that it is usually necessary to scrape the 
masses of adhering mud from the feet and legs 
of the chickens, to enable them to walk. But it 
is admitted that it is necessary to cut off every 
pig's tail, because if left of its watural length, it 
would soon collect on the end, a ball of mud 
which often becoming dry and hard, would be a 
permanent appendage of great annoyance to the 
wearer, and more like a ' ; slung shot" than a 
natural tail. 



The earliest white inhabitants, finding no 
springs or permanent streams, dug shallow 
wells or pits in the low and dampest spots, 
which were sunk a little into the blue lime- 
rock. In wet weather, the rain-water, that 
could percolate so low, " seeped" or oozed 
into these excavations, and so furnished a 
scant and uncertain supply of very bad wa- 
ter for drinking. The like diggings, made 
much broader, (sometimes 4U to GO feet 
across,) and with an inclined sloping passage- 
way from the surface, (and with connected 
ditches also to bring in surface rain-water,) 
are still used to supply water to the live- 
stock on many plantations. This " seeping" 
water is merely so much of the rain-water 
as had previously and slowly and with much 
difficulty, filtrated through the very close 
upper bed of clay, mostly black with the 
large impregnation of vegetable or other or- 
ganic matter, which communicated a disa- 
greeable flavor to all such water. But for 
drinking, and all other domestic uses, (other 
than for live-stock, and sometimes for them 
also,) there arc now usual and abundant sup- 
plies of rain-water, collected from the roofs 
of the buildings, and conducted into under- 
ground cisterns, which are excavated in the 
compact blue lime-rock. The opening into 
these cisterns is like that of a small ordina- 
ry well. But when reaching the firm calca- 
reous bed, the digging is widened on all 
sides, as much as may be desired for abun- 
dant capacity ; and the firm texture of the 
lime-rock prevents any danger of the over- 
hanging top falling in. A side apartment, 
is in some cases extended laterally, with a 
horizontal ceiling, to serve for a refrigera- 
tor, to keep milk, butter and fresh meats in. 
Into these subterranean excavations, very 
little of outer or upper water penetrates by 
percolation through the overlying and sur- 
rounding linn marl, or soft but solid creta- 
ceous rock. These cisterns, or underground 
galleries and small apartments, could not be 
more permanent, or safe, for their designed 
uses, if hewn out of solid marble. As all 
communication with the open air cannot be 
avoided, mosquitoes, though otherwise few 
in number, and of but slight annoyance, 
would find their way to, and if not prevent- 
ed, breed in numbers in the water of these 
cisterns. This however, is counteracted by 
placing in them a few small fish, which 
consume all the eggs and larvae, of the mos- 
quitoes. 

But the most convenient and abundant 



454: 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



supply of water, (though not always free 
enough from mineral impregnations to be 
used for drinking,) is now obtained by bor- 
ing through the thick bed of lime-rock, and 
reaching below it a sand-bed full of confined 
water, which rises through the new passage 
thus afforded, and usually to above the sur- 
face of the earth. These bored (or Arte- 
sian) wells have been very generally resort- 
ed to, and found available everywhere ex- 
cept about Union Town, the most elevated 
surface of the neighbouring calcareous re- 
gion. There, as it is now supposed, though 
the confined under-water can be always 
reached, and will rise up, it cannot rise high 
enough to flow off above the surface of the 
bed — which is the great object and value of 
this mode of supply. Everywhere else, wa- 
ter has been thus obtained, and usually in 
jets of the full size of the bores ; and, as it 
seems, so far, may be obtained in any desi- 
red quantity. At Selma, on the very high 
bluff, or bank of the Alabama river, on 
which the town is built, a very large Arte- 
sian well, with the aid of some accumulation 
of its water, is used, to turn an over-shot 
wheel, which, whenever needed, works ma- 
chinery to hoist goods from the river steam- 
ers to the store-houses. And, (as I was 
told ) on a plantation in Greene county, the 
streams from several adjacent bored wells, 
united, served as constant water-power to 
propel machinery for grinding corn, ginning 
cotton, sawing plank, &c, to good purpose 
and profit. The peculiar texture of the great 
calcareous bed, which is easy enough to pen- 
etrate with the auger, and yet so firm as to 
require no tubing to preserve the sides, or 
prevent the filling with earth, offers very 
unusual facilities for this great improvement. 
So important and convenient are these bored 
wells, that they are made, and in some cases 
even to depths between 700 and 800 feet, 
near the southern outline of the cretaceous 
belt, in places where other and abundant 
supplies of water are already obtained,. or 
are available, from shallow sources, or from 
veins of springs passing in the higher sandy 
beds above the marl-bed. This character 
exists only where sandy or non-calcareous 
beds of considerable depth and also lateral 
extent, lie upon the calcareous bed. And 
such lands (though like others, everywhere 
underlaid, at great depth, by the marl,) are 
not understood either in common parlance, 
or in these remarks, as of the " lime-land" 
region, or of their peculiar character. This 



term, or understanding, is confined to locali- 
ties where the marl-bed frequently rises to 
or very near the surface, and is no where 
absent at many feet below.* 

The soils of the " cane-brake" on the gen- 
erally calcareous region, are various — but all 
are greatly deficient in sand, or silicious 
parts, for proper or desirable pervious tex-. 
ture, and all are excessively and injuriously 
supplied with fine clay. Also, the greater 
number of soils, and the greater extent of 
surface, are much too profusely furnished 
with carbonate of lime. But also there are 
other portions frequently occurring, and in 
large proportion too, which are entirely des- 
titute of carbonate of lime — and some of 
them, (as I believe,) are very deficient of 
lime in any form of combination. Wherever 
the lime or marl rises to the surface, and 
makes the largest constituent part of the 
soil, no trees formerly grew — and the land 
is poor, and nearly barren where the lime is 
most abundant. But with all these, objec- 
tions, and defects of constitution, the land, 
from tillage and production, suffers less from 
too great wetness, (or long retention of too 



* Professor Tuomey says, " The water of near- 
ly all I have examined is more or less highly 
charged with salts of lime, magnesia- soda and 
iron, and in some instances, it is impregnated 
with sulphur." (First General Report, p. 13S.) 
The saline ingredients vary in different springs 
— but all are such as, if of rare occurrence, would 
elsewhere be termed and perhaps used as min- 
eral or medicinal waters, (p. 139.) ''Persons 
accustomed to this water, like it, and cattle pre- 
fer it to every other." . . "The temperature 
of the water, as it issues from the spout, increas- 
es nearly with the depth of the well ; but of 
course this gives only the mean temperature of 
all the water that flows into the well, and not 
that at the bottom [alone]. The want of uni- 
formity in the results obtained is doubtless ow- 
ing to this cause; and these results are, there- 
fore, only offered as a coarse approximation. 
" Temperature of the wells examined." 

Depth, feet. Temp. 
« Well at Finch's ferry, 173 

Do. near mill, 193 

Dr. Withers' mill [Greene,] 285 

Do. 360 

Boligee, 415 

Dr Withers' mill, 420 

Do. 468 

Cornfield, Boligee, 522 

Capt. Johnson's, 560 

Dr. Pernn's . 544 

"Taking wells of greatest and least depth, 
and comparing the temperature, it appears that 
the rate of increase is equal to 1° Fahr. for 
every 55 feet." (p. 140, 141.) 



64° 

66° 

64°. 30' 

65° 

68° 

66° 

6 6°. 30' 

70° 

71° 

72° 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



455 



much rain-water,) and also from long drought 
and great dryness of the soil, than could be 
conceived in advance of experience. And 
the extreme close and clayey texture docs 
not forbid very easy and good tillage, and 
consequent good tilth of soil — and the land 
is generally very productive, and the locali- 
ty, in general, very healthy — though the 
reverse of all these conditions would have 
been inferred from the mere statement of 
the natural features and constitution of the 
land. And all these benefits and qualities, 
so different from what would have been an- 
ticipated, are owing to the highly calcare- 
ous character of most of the surface, and of 
the whole of the under lying beds. 

The surface of this whole region, (with 
the few exceptions of alluvial bottoms,) is 
everywhere undulating, and generally enough 
so for the tilled and finely pulverized soil to 
be washed off, very injuriously, by heavy 
rains, on some parts of every field. Yet the 
slopes are rarely steep enough anywhere to 
be called hilly. Nor would such washing 
occur under a different course of culture, or 
alternate cropping, in which broad-cast crops, 
and grass, &c, made parts of a varying 
round of crops, instead of the how increas- 
ing and almost unvarying tillage of cotton 
and corn. It is this continual tillage, and 
especially of cotton, which demands a per- 
fectly pulverized and loose and clean soil, 
that causes the ruinous impoverishment, and 
mainly by washing, of the more southern 
states generally; and which has caused great 
damage even on these peculiar lands, which, 
by their constitution, are especially fitted to 
withstand the washing effects of rain. For- 
merly, here, as everywhere else, there was 
no care used to prevent or lessen their evil 
effects. The ploughing was in one uniform 
direction throughout each field, and in 
straight rows, and of course up and down the 
faces of many of the slopes. Of course, 
with all the land kept tilled every year, and 
two-thirds of it under cotton culture, no soil 
could be otherwise than greatly washed and 
wasted. It was only owing to the peculiar 
calcareous constitution, and the great depth 
of the fertile soil here, that the whole coun- 
try was not utterly destroyed by washing, as 
has occurred on so much of the rolling lands 
of middle Georgia, where the same causes 
and neglect prevailed, without the existence 
of the partial safeguards of the Alabama 
cane-brake lands. In latter years, gradua- 
ted or guard ditches on all the sloping sur- 



face, with horizontal rows and ploughing in 
the intervals between the ditches, have gen- 
erally been adopted by all good planters — 
and these, when well placed, and kept in 
order, seem to be sufficient safe-guards 
against the further extension of the former 
injurious washing of the fields, even under 
the usual continual succession of tillage 
crops. 

The surface of the arable land, as exposed 
to the eye when newly ploughed, (and be- 
fore being hidden by the growing crop,) is 
everywhere spotted with different shades of 
color, from black to yellowish and white. 
The black soil (including the darkest gray,) 
is known as " prairie land '" and of this 
class, when the lime-rock rises nearly or 
quite to the surface, it makes the ploughed 
layer nearly white. The yellowish and red- 
dish portions, intervening with the foimer, 
are known as different varieties and grades 
of " post-oak land." These latter compre- 
hend all the various tints and alternations of 
brownish, yellowish and reddish soils, all 
dull and imperfect tints, for these different 
descriptive terms. The extents of space of 
all these differently colored soils are from 
less than an acre to ten or more acres to- 
gether. More rarely, some one kind, and 
more frequently of the black, extends for 
hundreds of acres together. Very different 
agricultural qualities and values belong to 
these different varieties of soils. Still, as I 
was informed by sundry intelligent planters, 
all these different soils were supposed, by all 
the residents, to have the common property 
of being highly calcareous. Indeed, I did 
not hear an opinion to the contrary, or even 
a doubt. Further, to establish this proposi- 
tion, which my first personal view caused me 
to doubt, my own testimony (as supposed) 
was quoted against me — and I was told that 
in my former published report (in Farmers' 
Register,) of hard-specimens analyzed by 
myself, I had stated that the u post-oak" soil 
contained 25 per cent of carbonate of lime. 
Since returning home, and being enabled to 
refer to my former report, I find that this 
supposition was a mistake. The only two 
specimens of "post-oak" soil formerly sent 
to me, I had reported, (vol. III. Farmers' 
Register,) to contain not a particle of car- 
bonate of lime. When having the advan- 
tage of the much more correct indications 
afforded by personal inspection of numerous 
soils, in place, as soon as I could obtain some 
muriatic acid, I began to test specimens 



456 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



thus selected, and such as were the most 
sure to settle the disputed question, which 
it seemed I had now raised. In all these 
trials, of " post-oak" soils of various shades 
and qualities, and including some which 
(from their value and qualities) the intelli- 
gent proprietors were most confident of be- 
ing highly calcareous, there was not one 
specimen examined by. me, or brought to my 
notice that contained the least intermixture 
of carbonate of lime. And before I had 
provided the means for thus readily testing 
specimens, and exhibiting manifest evidence 
of the absence of all carbonate of lime, I 
had felt assured of that general proposition, 
by the character of the forest growth, the 
appearance of the soil, and still more by the 
fact that I heard, that there was no difficulty 
in making and burning bricks of the " post- 
oak" soil. Any notable quantity of carbon- 
ate of lime, in burning, would be made 
quick-lime, and slake afterwards when re- 
ceiving moisture, and thereby, necessarily, 
would cause bricks to burst open or crum- 
ble. 

The earliest French travellers and settlers 
on the Mississippi and its branches, when 
seeing lands bare of trees, and covered by 
tall grass, called them " prairies/' (mea- 
dows.) This term has become universal 
in all the western states, (though usually 
disguised by a corrupted pronunciation, as 
" pararah,") for all new lands destitute of 
trees. Here, these former naked spaces 
bore but a very small proportion to the great 
extent of land upon which tall forest trees 
over-shadowed the dense under-growth of 
cane. The naked, or true prairies, in this 
region, were rarely more than a few acres 
in extent. But the peculiar and remarka- 
ble visible qualities of the soil agreed pre- 
cisely with those of all the other neighbor- 
ing or surrounding black land, (all being 
caused by the abundant though unequal quan- 
tities of lime in both kinds.) Therefore, 
though these forest-covered lands wanted 
the very mark of distinction implied in the 
name, yet to these also was extended the 
name of " prairie " — and the two varieties 
were distinguished as " bald prairie " and 
" wooded prairie." The trees covering these 
wooded prairies, were such as thrive best on 
calcareous and the richest neutral soils, as 
black-walnut, ash, shell-bark hickory, po- 
paw, &c. Scarcely any of this always very 
fertile soil now remains uncleared, or bear- 
ing its original forest cover. 



All the terms, used by the residents (as 
above stated, and also others,) (o designate 
and distinguish these soils are unsatisfacto- 
ry; and the distinctions (and agreements) 
of qualities, designed to be thus indicated, 
are founded on erroneous grounds. Also 
the terms are different, or the same terms 
are applied differently, in different localities. 
It would be better to arrange all the soils 
first into the two great divisions "of calca- 
reous, (or such as will effervesce on the ap- 
plication of diluted muriatic acid,) and the 
non-calcareous — and of which latter much 
also is neutral soil. All of the so-called 
" prairie " lands, of both kinds, so far as I 
have tested these soils, are calcareous — gen- 
erally highly so — containing usually from 8 
to 20 per cent, of carbonate of lime — and 
the " bald prairie " lands are excessively 
and injuriously supplied with carbonate of 
lime, having sometimes 50 per cent, or more, 
and the soil thereby is rendered much less 
productive, and, in extreme cases, nearly 
barren. . The second great division embraces 
all the lands called "post-cak," of many 
shades and qualities, and the most distinctly 
marked reddish and yellowish surfaces. As 
said before, I have found none of these to 
effervesce with acid — and therefore they 
cannot contain any carbonate of lime — not- 
withstanding the general and heretofore un- 
disputed opinion of the residents and plan- 
ters to the contrary.* 

Thus, after recently testing a number of 
different soils, and by carefully selected spe- 
cimens of soils seen in their natural places 
— as well as formerly having more carefully 
analysed (for the calcareous contents only,) 
many hard specimens sent to me and des- 
cribed by other persons — I now venture to 
assert that all of the high-lying black soils, 



* It is proper that I should admit that, though 
perhaps not positively and directly, yet indirect- 
ly, Mr. Tuoiney's Reports seem much more to 
oppose than to sustain my opinion, of the gene- 
ral absence of carbonate of lime in the " post- 
oak " soils. He has not, indeed, distinctly 
affirmed the opposite opinion, as a general rnlej 
but it would seem to be indirectly asserted, in 
such soils not being mentioned as being excep- 
tional to the stated general rule of the highly 
calcareous constitution of the soils of this re- 
gion in general. But there is also some direct 
evidence of this opposing opinion. First, Prof. 
Tuomey calls these soils "post-oak prair'es. 1 ' 
At page 140 of First Report, he said, u The 
stratum from which the soil of the post-oak 
prairies is derived, it is probable, was never 
continuous, but was deposited, as I have already 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



457 



(or so-called ii prairie" lands,) are highly 
and abundantly calcareous — and the " bald 
pi-airies " excessively calcareous: — and that 
the true and unmixed "post-oak" lands, on 
the original reddish or yellowish soils arc 
entirely destitute of carbonate of 'lime. And 
1 infer of the latter general class of soils, 
that most of them, even though rich ar.d 
neutral, would yet be benefitted by being 
manured with the close-adjacent and very 
accessible marl — and that all of the natu- 
rally poorer soils of this class are very defi- 
cient in lime, and therefore would certainly 
be improved by such application. 

But, besides the well-marked qualities of 
these different soils, to be observed in the 
interior of the space occupied by each par- 
ticular body, there arc likewise, and of ne- 
cessity must be, intermixtures of these dif- 
ferent adjacent soils, where they meet, 
which partake of the composition and quali- 
ties of both. These intervening and inter- 
mixed portions of soil, and the different 
kinds of soil on each side, when under til- 
lage together, must have their parts and 
qualities more and more intermixed, and 
the intermixtures extended by the effect of 
the plough in removing the adhering earth. 
Thus there is necessarily much of medium 
(or intermixed) soil lying between every two 
adjoining portions of different soils in the 
same field. «^aA1so, there are black and rich 
soils in the narrow depressions and bottoms, 
(the former "slues," [sloughs ?] before the 
land was under culture,) of which the soil 
was formed by the deposition of washings 
from various soils brought from higher 
slopes. These soils usually are non-calca- 
reous, though probably provided with lime 
in considerable, if not abundant quantity, 
in some other combinations than the carbon- 
ate. These several intermixed and medium 
soils may at first seem to oppose contradic- 
tions to the general divisions and descrip- 
tions offered above ; but if duly considered, 



said, in depressions on the surface of the lime- 
stone, after the latter had been subject to denu- 
dation. It [the poet-oak soil] is composed of 
clay and lime intimately mixed, producing a 
subsoil of a light brown color, that is subject to 
crack by contraction when drying." I should 
not have deemed it necessary for me to refer to 
this.opposition to my position, whether real or 
only apparent, but for the deservedly high scien- 
tific character of Prof. Tuomey, and my great 
deference to his general correctness of observa- 
tion and deduction. 



ihey will not be deemed exceptions to the 

general positions assumed.* 

There are also extensive and very fertile 
bottoms, or flats bordering on creeks, I 
e rally dry, but sometimes overflowing,) 
of which the soils have been furnished, or 
greatly increased, by washings brought by 
rain-floods from higher grounds. These 
soils contain none of the original lime-rock, 
(except as a deep under-lying lad,) nor 
even its smallest fragments or gravel — but 
only the fine and intermixed lime, diffused 
throughout in the minutest state of division, 
and combined with the different parent soils. 
Such soils, according to the character of 
their sources, may be either neutral, slightly 
calcareous, or highly calcareous — and in 
either case abundantly supplied with lime 
in some form. Many of the narrow bottoms 
(or former " slues,) are of neutral soil. 
The broad flat and fertile bottom on the 
Chehatchee Creek, Dallas county, (or the 
only specimen I selected and tested,) is a£ 
very slightly calcareous soil — and the rich 
bottom along the Cottonwood Creek, (Ma- 
rengo,) is highly calcareous. 

Of the portions of the high lands which 
I designate as non-calcareous, and which are 
usually known as " post-oak " lands, there 
are various qualities, in reference to value 
and production. Some of the best are 
more productive in cotton, (though not in 
corn,) than the best black lands — and some, 
even when new, are very inferior, for either 
crop, and some absolutely poor. The best 
and most fertile lands, of all the different 
varieties of appearance, are among the rich- 
est and most durable known any where. 
The first settlement and cultivation of this 
country are but forty years old ; and most 
of the first cropping has been of much later 
date. But whatever was the time of the 
beginning, the tillage and exhaustion since 
have been continued and unremitting. And 
so well has the fertility been preserved un» 
der this continual exaction, and almost with- 
out manure, that it is still a commonly as- 
serted and received doctrine that the best 
soils are inexhaustible, and will bear con- 
tinual cropping for all future time. Long 
ago, and probably before any decrease of 
fertility had been observed anywhere, I pro- 
tested against this belief as a dangerous delu- 
sion ; and now, as formerly, I maintain that 



* Essay on Calcareous Manures, (5th Ed.)- 
Chap. v i i ., on Neutral Soils. 



458 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



if this prevailing and almost universal 
course of unremitting- and exhausting til- 
lage is continued, a future time will come, 
however remote it may be, when this re- 
gion will be reduced to a condition as bar- 
ren and hopeless, as it has been, and is most- 
ly still, of unsurpassed value for production. 
It seems difficult for a proprietor to yield 
the fond belief in the inexhaustible fertility 
of his land ; and with many a sufficient 
ground for this reliance is the fact of the 
rich black soil being (in some places) three 
or four feet, or more, in depth, and that til- 
lage has not yet touched more than the up- 
per few inches. And though it is generally 
admitted that the average production of the 
older fields has much diminished, in conse- 
quence of the frequent occurrence of short 
crops, these failures are ascribed .not to the 
general and remote cause of continued til- 
lage, and generally under the same crop, 
but to such immediate transient causes as 
bad seasons, depredations of insects, and 
some of the many diseases of cotton. The 
latter causes of decreased production will 
be again considered in connection with the 
prevailing errors of continued and unchang- 
ed cropping. 

There are some other remarkable pecu- 
liarities of the lands of this region, which 
will now be mentioned. The consideration 
of the geological formation, or the ancient 
changes produced by such causes, will serve 
to explain the most important and strange 
of the present agricultural features of this 
region. 

The great bed of lime-rock, which every- 
where underlies the soils and upper earth of 
this region, is of the cretaceous formation, 
of the same geological age, and very like in 
characters, to the chalk of Europe. The 
fossil remains are of animals of that epoch.* 
In its great depth, and also the general 
chemical constitution, this bed is similar to 
the chalk. But this is more impure, (or 



* The only fossils I saw are exogyna cosfata, 

and oslrea ?? which are common on the 

bald prairies and are both remarkably thick, 
massive and hard shells. In other places, there 
are many other shells of the cretaceous beds. 



contains less of carbonate of lime — ) and j 
it is not recognized as chalk by geologists, 
who deny that there is any chalk in America. 
This bed, in southern Alabama, is from 400 I 
to more than 800 feet thick, as has been ! 
often ascertained in the different borings for 
the water confined beneath.* This great bed 
of marine deposition, which was the bottom of 
the then ocean in the cretaceous age, was 
subsequently upheaved; by volcanic or other 
forces acting under the earth, to its present 
elevation, and the northern side much the 
highest. At a later time, the great flood, 
coming from the north-west, which, else- 
where and on all the Atlantic slope, has 
left so many evidences of its violent and de- 
structive passage and great effects — which 
deposited its heavier and earliest dropped 
burden of poor sand so generally over lower 
Virginia, North Carolina and South Caro- 
lina — here, in a later and more tranquil 
state of the overflowing waters, has de- 
posited over the whole surface of the rock, 
the lighter, and longer-borne sediment of 
fine and pure clay, which makes the much 
greater proportion of all the present soils 
and subsoils, and which upper beds are more 
or less altered by intermixture with the up- 
torn foundation of soft calcareous rock, or 
the previously abraded and re-deposited, 
and again slirred-up portions thereof. But 
previous to this final deposition of the fine 
sediment of clay, the earlier and most vio- 
lent currents of the great descending flood 
had operated to loosen, tear away, and partly 
to carry off, to greater or less distances, much 
of the higher and softer parts of the origi- 
nal thickness of the cretaceous bed, and to 
leave its reduced new surface with all the 
great irregularities of outline which now 
appears wherever the surface is exposed to 
view by excavation. Along the newly made 
cut for the railroad, near Union Town, 
through a poor "post-oak" ridge, (and 
where the sections of the strata could be 
best seen,) the profile was of the general 
character or appearance roughly represented 
on the next page: 



* Prof. Tuomey supposes the thickness to be 
full 1000 feet. 












I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANT UK. 



45.0 



Perpendicular Section of Poor Post- ah Land — In /■'■ 
Surface Soil — Clay. 



Subsoil and lower earth — yellowish clay. 




Upper marl- -whitish — hard and rich. 



Lower and main body of marl — bluish, compact and rich 



The operation of the violent current of 
the flood was to wash away and remove com- 
pletely from such places as this, all the much 
softer parts of the upper marl — leaving the 
harder parts, as seen in the now remaining 
protuberant eminences. Next followed, after 
the water had become nearly tranquil, its 
letting fall its last borne sediment of the 
purest and lightest clay, which deposite first 
filled the deeper hollows and next covered 
the highest parts of the marl, and next 
formed the upper bed and the surface, as 
they now exist. And in such places, there 
was so little intermixture of the then hard 
though irregular surface of the marl, (as it 
was washed clean, and left remaining, by 
the violent flood,) with the subsequently de- 
posited clay, that even now there is no car- 
bonate of lime in the clay within two inches 
above the soft lime-rock. 

But elsewhere, and in all the now rich 
and deep black (or " prairie") lands, there 
was a different operation, and different man- 
ner of formation of soil. There, either the 
loosened and disintegrated lime-rock was 
partly left, as calcareous gravel, or this 
gravel was again deposited, after being 
swept from places where the current was 
too violent to leave any such loosened matter 
remaining in its original place. The inter- 
mixtures of this calcareous gravel with the 
fine clay subsequently deposited, would be 
sufficient to provide material for the deepest 
and richest of soils, with the subsequent aid 
of vegetable growth to provide organic mat- 
ter. The remains of the calcareous gravel 
are still to be seen everywhere in exposed 
lower sections of the rich black soils, lying 
usually from one to three feet deep over the 
solid upper calcareous rock, and intermixed 



with black soil, which extends from that 
rock to the surface of the land. In the 
later time of the subsiding flood, when 
greatly lessened in volume and in force, and 
divided into different smaller currents flow- 
ing through the deeper channels afforded by 
the bottom, the water would continue to let 
fall its burden of fine clay sediment, in dif- 
ferent quantities according to the depth, 
and the quicker or slower motion of the re- 
duced waters. Wherever this pure clay 
sediment was deposited on the clean-washed 
and hard lime rock, and of sufficient depth, 
it served to make the existing patches of 
" post-oak" soil — which is either improved, 
or not, by subsequent admixtures of the 
lower lime-rock, and is, consequently, either 
rich or poor, according to the natural facili- 
ties for, or obstacle's to, such intermixture of 
the lower lime with the upper soil. This 
very pure and close clay, after it had be- 
come dry soil, or lower earth, whether inter- 
mixed with lime or separate, would neces- 
sarily be almost impervious to the downward 
filtration of rain-water — and equally, or still 
more impervious is the thick calcareous bed 
below to the passage of descending rain- 
water, or to the ascent of the fountain water 
confined below the thick and impervious bed 
of lime-rock, and pressing upward for escape. 
With these physical conditions, of nearly 
impervious upper and lower beds, it i> 
to trace and to understand the eauses of the 
remarkable peculiarities of this country, in 
the entire absence of natural springs and of 
permanent streams — and of the waxy, ad- 
hesive quality of all the surface soils and 
! subsoils and lower earth, when thoroughly 
| wet by rain. This remarkable quality o£ 
i the soil, which is the great evil of this 



4G0 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



country, renders the roads almost impassable 
by wheel carriages, in winter; and every 
other mode of conveyance and of ordinary 
land travel, extremely difficult and annoy- 
ing. This quality of the soil is generally 
ascribed to the universal and very large pro- 
* portion of lime supposed to be in all the 
soils. This is altogether erroneous. Not 
only is lime absent (or nearly so, and the 
carbonate of lime entirely absent,) in a 
large proportion of the surface and subsoils, 
but carbonate of lime, if alone, or other- 
wise the principal ingredient of other soils, 
is very pervious to water, and therefore 
operates to keep land dry. In the chalk 
region of England, the watering ponds made 
(in the pure chalk) for cattle, require to be 
bottomed thickly with clay, and that well 
puddled, or the water will fast escape by 
downward filtration. It is very certain (of 
lands in Virginia) that soils containing ordi- 
nary proportions of silicious sand, if also 
slightly calcareous, are thereby enabled to 
to imbibe and retain more rain-water, and 
for a longer time, without its being excessive 
or hurtful — and also to discharge any in- 
jurious excess of rain-water, by evaporation 
or percolation, or both, more quickly than 
adjacent and sandy soils, not calcareous. 
The remarkable stickiness of these Alabama 
soils when wet, or their strong retcntiveness of 
water in excess, as I infer, is owing to the 
absence or great deficiency of silicious sand, 
and the great quantity of unusually pure 
clay in these soils and their subsoils or un- 
der-beds. This clay absorbs and holds a 
very large quantity of rain-water in its 
outer and pulverized and pervious coat — 
(and therein is aided by the lime — ) but, 
despite of the counteracting operation of the 
intermixed chalk, or carbonate of lime, its com- 
pact pavtisimpervioustothe deep penetration 
of the water, and its passage and escape by 
downward filtration. Thus, all the excess 
of water, which cannot flow off over the 
surface to lower levels, is held absorbed, and 
serves to make a mire of the upper soil, 
until it Is carried off by evaporation. And 
the very large calcareous ingredient of the 
soil, which increases the absorbent power of 
the clay, also acts to aid and hasten the sub- 
sequent discharge by evaporation of the 
superfluous and hurtful water, as well as to 
retain, (even when the soil seems dryest,) 
much moisture that mere clay could not ab- 
sorb. After the rain has ceased, and fair 
weather sets in ; the too wet or miry soil 



dries rapidly, and, if tillage land, soon be- 
comes friable and is easily pulverized. Com- 
pared to other soils with like uneven sur- 
face, and with such heavy rains, but little 
of the superfluous rain-water passes off over 
the surface and down the slopes, to the boU 
toms, there to form what are called creeks — 
which are large streams that flow only in 
wet seasons or after heavy rains — and some- 
times even overflow the bordering flats — 
but are not permanent even in winter, and 
are usually dry in all other times, except as 
to a few stagnant pools Remaining in the 
lowest parts of the channels. Thus, natu- 
rally, there was not a spring, or a permanent 
stream in all this great region of generally 
calcareous soil, and universal calcareous un- 
der-beds. 

But these beds, whether the upper or 
lower, are not so entirely impervious as they 
would seem at first, and as is generally sup- 
posed. TIte soil cracks deeply in dry wea- 
ther. And if there were deep under-drains, 
(as in the most improved modern system of 
thorough chaining in England,) I have no 
doubt that these cracks and fissures of the 
earth would serve as aids to keep it drained 
— and free from the present evils .of heavy 
rains— to nearly as great a depth as the 
bottoms of the drains, or say 4 to 5 feet. 
Also, the inferior bed of compact blue lime- 
rock is not always or entirely impervious to 
the passage, and escape of water, though it 
is to its downward filtration. This is proved 
by the following we^l-established and long 
known fact. Before such occurrences pro- 
duced caution, it had often happened that 
the "seep wells," which were dug but a 
little into the compact lime-rock, and were 
supplied with water by the very slow lateral 
percolation, or " seeping" of rain-water from 
the earth above, were afterwards deepened; 
and it frequently followed, that by this deep- 
ening reaching some unsuspected fissures in 
the rock, the water escaped below, and the 
well became dry and useless. But this ef- 
fect was not caused by the texture of the 
blue or solid marl being the least permeable 
to the filtrating action of water, but to 
minute passages formed by fissures, between 
layers of the rock. The upper portion of 
this bed is usually in layers parallel with 
the original horizontal plane of the bed, 
and of course now having the same very 
slight dip towards the south. These " joints" 
are scarcely perceptible in the covered and 
moist bed. But where- exposed to the air, or 



18G0.] 



TIIK SOUTHERN PLANTKR. 



401 



dried, the partings open*, ami probably can- 
not bo closed again by being made w< t. 
Along the perpendicular bants of the 
Alabama river, between Montgomery ana 
Belma, whore they expose the- upper part 
of this bed, the laycn of solid inarl-rork 
are so regular in thickness, and exact in 
parallelism, and the joints between the hori- 
lontal layers so distinct, that the appear- 
ance is often more like a perpendicular, 
♦all of artificial and very perfectly laid ( 
masonry, than a natural formation. All of 
tin m' regular joints arc nearly horizontal, j 
Very few, and these irregular, are fissures , 
breaking through the layers of mart And 
deep under the earth, where never dry, all . 
these joints must be extremely close. There- , 
fore, though some water may pass through , 
them, it must be very slowly, and that in a 
lateral direction, following the slight dip of j 
the layers. p 

With the few exceptions of the low and 
flat bottoms, subject to be more or less cov- 
ered by rain-floods making swollen streams, 
the land of this region may be said to suf- 
fer from no water but the rain which falls 
immediately on it, and which rain, for much 
the greater part, always, and in most times 
entirely, is absorbed by the earth on which 
it falls. Therefore, according to the usu- 
ally received opinions, here and elsewhere 
also, such lauds need no draining— and 
there is none attempted, other than to open 
a ditch along a " slue" or narrow bottom, 
to allow the excess of rain-water, which 
flows off' because the earth can hold no 
more, to escape to a neighbouring creek, or 
perhaps to flow over some other lower and 
more absorbent ground. But I have never 
seen any lands, not affected by sprin.. 
floods, that so much needed draining as 
these — or would so richly reward the la- 
bour of thorough and covered drainage. 
Both tlose propositions are founded upon 
the peculiarities of these soils, and under- 
beds in their texture, and relations to mois- 
ture — or to the readiness of the soil to ab- 
sorb water, and the inability to let it pass 
through by filtration. No differently con- 
stituted soil and subsoil could retain so 
much water, or could discharge so little. 
Further — there is no soil, known to me, in 
which "thorough draining," as pract 
in England, could be executed so perfectly, 
or would be more durable. The firm, clay 
coil, or the firm marl when that was reach- 
ed, would enable the very narrow ditches to 



be opened by the suitable utensils used in 
England. The conduit at bottom, of two 

or three inches width only, might be cover- 
ed by the lumps of linn marl, dug else- 
where in the same ditch, or otherwise 
found close by. This rock, if again thus 
buried while moist, to construct and to 
cover the conduit, soon after being excava- 
ted, I suppose would be no more liable to 
be disintegrated than when in its original 
place. And so long as the rock remained 
firm, the passage beneath would keep open, 
and the drainage continue to be effectual. 
Such covered drainsbeing made parallel to 
each other, and GO feet apart, and 4^ to 6 
feet deep,, (according to the principles and 
plan advocated by Parkcs,) would permit the 
soil to become dry generally to the depth 
of 3* to 4 feet. Numerous minute cracks 
would form in such a clayey soil to the 
depth of the dried and shrunken earth. 
Such cracks, once formed in dry weather, 
will never again be perfectly closed, but will 
serve to pass superfluous water at all times 
to the lower neighbouring open conduits. 

With covered drains thus operating, the 
land never would suffer with wetness. But 
this is not all. The future protection from 
drought would be as great as from wetness, 
No lands suffer so much from drought, when 
dry, as those which most suffer for want of 
draining at other seasons. A clay soil or 
sub-soil soaked in water through winter, 
and drying in summer, becomes almost as 
hard as brick, and is then almost incapable 
of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, 
or of supporting plants. The same soil, 
if thoroughly drained, and so kept free 
from superfluous water through winter, will 
be subsequently fissured and pulverized 
t roughout, and kept in the best condition 
for attracting and retaining a proper degree 
of moisture, as well as for passing off great 
and hurtful quantities. A soil thus drain- 
ed, and more especially if constituted like * 
these cane-brake soils, could absorb and re- 
tain more water without damage — would 
more strongly retain small supplies, would 
absorb more moisture from the air, in 
droughts, than any soil of different con- 
stitution and character, even if as well 
drained. And, generally, it may be truly 
said that such thorough and covered drain- 
ing would enable these lands and their 
crops to profit fully by every remarkable 
good quality of the soil — as depth and 
riehncssof soil, abundance of lime, absorbent 



462 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



texture, and constitution of soil and subsoil ; 
and greatly to lessen or entirely remove, all ill 
effects of other peculiar bad qualities— as ex- 
cess of clay and impermeable texture, miry 
fields and roads, and a deficiency of sand. 

But even if all these positions were ad- 
mitted, the great cost of such thorough 
draining will prevent its' being attempted, 
or a thought of its execution being enter- 
tained by any planter. It is true that it 
might cost as much as the present average 
price of good land in Marengo, or $50 the 
acre. But that would be only equal to an 
annual expenditure of the interest of $50, 
which, at 8 per cent., would be $4 a year. 
What planter is there who does not lose 
much more than $4 annually on each acre, 
by the disadvantages which thorough drain- 
age would remove ? And if removed, be- 
sides the gain in saving labour, who might 
not expect to make twice as much of addi- 
tional crop to the acre, as would sell for $4 ? 

Besides the remarkable qualities of most 
of these soils, in the unusual and great 
abundance of carbonate of lime, and of fine 
clay, and of the great deficiency of silicious 
sand — compared to all other soils, previ- 
ously or elsewhere known to me — it seems 
that there is another rare character of 
constitution, in the sometimes, if not gen- 
eral, uncommon abundance of organic mat- 
ter in these soils, sub-soils, and under-beds. 
I regret much, that on this interesting point 
I have but little of precise information. 
In making my own early examinations and 
partial analyses of specimens of these soils, 
selected for me by residents, my attention 
was directed almost exclusively to the then 
novel and interesting subject of ascertain- 
ing the absence or presence, and the pro- 
portion when present, of carbonate of lime. 
I was not competent, and did not attempt to 
conduct a full analysis of soil — and did not 
then extend ray search even to results 1 
might have obtained, if then known to be 
of great interest. Thus, I did not suspect 
any remarkable quantities of organic mat- 
ter, until I saw such reported of sundry 
specimens analized by Drs. Cooper, Gibbes, 
and Nott, (of S. C.,) and which I repub- 
lished in the Farmer's Register, (vol. ii., p. 
71G, and iii, p. 272; and also vol. iii, p. 332-- 
3, in condensed form.) And while yield- 
ing all deference to the general knowledge 
of these gentlemen in chemical science, I 
cannot help suspecting that, in conducting 
these analyses, they may have erred, as 



Davy, and* all of the greatest as well as all 
inferior chemists had formerly done, in tho 
method for ascertaining the true proportions 
of carbonate of lime. I infer this, because, 
while professing to report all the contents 
of the various soils, there is stated in the 
results no other salt of lime except the car- 
bonate — when there is strong indirect evi- 
dence (as I will show) of the presence of 
some other salts of lime. But even if this j 
error existed, it has no bearing on the par- 
ticular to which I shall refer, and in which 
I presume these analyses may be relied'! 
upon. This is the general and remarka- 
ble large proportion of organic matter. 
Of 12 specimens of soils or sub-soils, 
(which will be stated with others hereaf- 
ter,) and none including any of the surface 
or of the recent and undecomposed vegeta- 
ble matter, all containing proportions of vege- 
table mat^r, in no case less than 20 per 
cent., and in one case only, less than 25 per 
cent,, and from that to as much as 38 per 
cent. ! All this vegetable matter must 
have been not only fully decomposed, but, 
(according to my views,) chemically com- 
bined with the lime, and by that means 
fixed in the soil. But for the very large 
amount of lime, it would have been impos- 
sible for any soil to have retained, and al- 
most concealed, the presence of one-half or 
one-third of such large proportions of vege- 
table or organic matter. These 12 sam- 
ples were all, except two, (which were not 
stated,) taken at not less than 6 or 8 inches 
below the surface. And one of them, at 
18 inches below the surface, contained more 
vegetable matter (and also more carbonate 
of lime,) than the soil 12 inches immedi- 
ately above. But ■ before making farther 
comments, or deductions, I will offer in a 
condensed form, a statement of all the anal- 
yses made heretofore by myself or by 
others, and formerly published by me, of 
soils of the calcareous region of Alabama. 
Some others from other states only, and re- 
mote locolities, will be omitted here. I 
will arrange them in separate classes — but 
each one before reported will be referred to 
by its former number, and the page and 
volume where it was more fully described 
in the Farmer's Register. 

I. Marl, or " Rotten Lime-Stone," op 
both Upper and Lower Beds. 

Several specimens from Marengo county 
(sent by Richard Cocke) varied in the pro 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



463 



portions of carbonate of lime, per cent, 
from 72 to 8& 

Upper ami softer yellowish white marl, 
but compact for that kind, from new cut of 
rail-road Mar Union Town— 78 per cent. 
Residue, entirely a yellowish pure clay. 

Lower and bluish compact marl, Maren- 
go, A. P. Calhoun's, 82i Residue, a black 
pure clay, containing (apparently) much 
organic matter. No silicious sand in either 
of the two last specimens. Both of these 
selected recently by myself. 

II. Soils (and Sub-soils) of " Bald 
Prairie." 

(No. 2, described page 331, vol. iii, Far- 
mer's Register,) soil— Marengo — R. Cocke— 
Carbonate of lime 59 per cent. 

(No. 9, p. 332,) Soil— near Demopolis, 
Dr. 11. Withers — (produced corn well, but 
not cotton,) 60. 

(No. 10. p. 332,) Sub-soil, -J one foot 
deep— Greene county— R. Withers — 50 per 
cent. The lime rock there at 2 feet be- 
low surface. 

(No. 20, p. 332,) Lowndes— Col. J. Deas, 
—at l\ feet below the surface of a thin poor 
soil nearly white— 84 per cent. 

(No. 21, p. 332,) Same field, also rather 
poor— darker— 3- feet deep, 27 per cent. 

(fNo. 35, p. 333,)Lowndes-Chisholm's, 
white bald prairie — from near^surface. Soil 
(above the rock) only 18 inches deep. 
Carbonate of lime 42, and vegetable mat- 
ter 2S per cent. ! 

Soil (4 inches from surface) of bald 
prairie— Dallas county— 11. II. Adams'. Poor, 
3apable of bringing 12 to 15 bushels of 
3orn. 604 grains, separated by a corn-meal 
arire seive, into 170 of coarser (mostly 
ialearcous gravel,) and 434 of finer. The 
ioarscr contained 62 per cent., and the 
iner 51 of carbonate of lime— or about 
)4 of general average. The residue was 
ibout half of very fine sand, and the other 
ialf of fine black clay. 

[II. Calcareous Soils — either for- 
merly OPEN PRAIRIE, (NOT POOR PRAI- 
RIE,) OR OTHERWISE COVERED BY FOR- 
EST — AND ALL RICH. 

No. 1, p. 331, vol. iii.) Prairie soil of 
nost productive kind — Marengo — R. Cocke. 
Black clay, with scarcely any sand. Con- 
ained 8 per cent, of carbonite of line. 



t This analyzed by Pr. R. W. Gibbea. 



fa ::, p. 881.) Marengo— K. Cocke. 
Very rich Mme-brake land — naturally wetter, 
10 per cent. 

(No. 19, p. 332.) Lowndes— J. Deas. 
Open ]ir:iiric — very fertile -black. Taken 
4} feet deep, but still dark stiff clay, appa- 
rently very rich, 11 per cent. 

(*No. 23, p. 332, and vol. ii. p. 710. 
Lowndes — J. l)eas. Open prairie, contain- 
ed carbonate of lime 25, and vegetable mat- 
ter K per cent. 

■ (*No. 24, p. 333, vol. iii. and p. 716, vol. 
ii.) Same plantation, "slue prairie," or 
" wooded prairie" — 15 per cent, of carbon- 
ate of lime, and 25 of vegetable matter. 

(* No. 25, p. 333, vol. iii. and p. 716, 
vol. ii.) Montgomery county, Elmore and 
Taylor. Open prairie, taken at 6 inches 
deep — carbonate of line 38, and vegetable 
matter 20 per cent. 

(♦No. 26, p. 333, vol. iii. and p. 716, vol. 
ii.) Taken from below the preceding at 18 
inches below the surface — carbonate of lime 
48, and vegetable matter 29 percent — show- 
ing he remarkable fact of the latter increas- 
ing greatly as descending. 

(fNo. 27, p. 333, vol. iii. and also p. 272, 
vol. iii.) Black slue prairie, Montgomery, 
F. Elmore. (Wooded Prairie ?) 6 to 8 
inches below surface. Carbonate lime 32. 
Vegetable matter 26. 

(fNo. 28, p. 333 and 272.) Same— Ham- 
mock prairie — 6 to 8 inches depth. Car- 
bonate lime 22, Vegetable matter 36 per cent. 

(fNo. 30, p. 333 and 272.) Hog-bed 
prairie, Lowndes — 6 to 8 inches. Colbert's. 
Carbonate lime 8, and Vegetable matter, 26 
per cent. 

fNo. 32, p. 333 and 273.) Lowndes— J. 
II. Taylor. Black slue prairie — wood land — 
best — 6 to 8 inches deep. Carbonate lime 
12, Vegetable matte* , 2S per cent. 

(fNo. 33, p. 333 and 273.) Lowndes— 
do. Prairie with scattering large post oaks. 
Soil (taken at 6 to 8 inches) mingled with 
red clay. Carbonate lime, 6, Vegetable mat- 
ter, 32 per cent. 

(fNo. 34, p. 333 and 273.) Lowndes— 
do. Open prairie — from a ridge — 6 to 8 
inches depth. Carbonate lime 18, Vegetable 
matter, 32 per cent. 



* Tlic^c specimens analysed by Dts. Cooper 
Gibbes and Nott. 

t These analysed by Dr R. W. Gibbes. 



464 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER, 



[August 



No. 1, p. 498, vol. iii.) Greeme — Dr. 11. 
"Withers. Loose, dark friable sandy loam. 
No evidence to the eye of being calcareous. 
Contained carbonate lime, 8 per cent. 

(No. 2, p. 498.) Greene— R Withers. 
Open or bald prairie of the most usual kind, 
would then produce f>0 bushels of corn — but 
produces cotton badly. Contained 33 per 
cent, carbonate lime. 

To these, as examples, may be added al- 
most every black and rich high land soil in 
all this region, as was made evident to me 
by numerous recent testings by acid, or 
otherwise by the presence of calcareous 
gravel, obvious to the sight, and therefore, 
requiring no chemical test of the soil. 
IV. Post oak or other non- calca- 
reous LANDS— FOUND BY ANALYSIS TO 
CONTAIN NO CARBONATE OF LIME. 

No. 3, p. 498, vol. iii.) Greene— R. 
Withers. Post oak land. Very tenacious 
clay soil. Reta : ns water strongly. Very miry 
after rainy weather, and very hard in dry. 

(N<* 4, p. 331.) Marengo— 11. Cocke. 
Rich bottom cane land — very wet in win- 
ter, though dry in summer. 

(No. 5, p. 331.) Marengo— R. Cocke. 
Best post oak land — trees of that kind from 2 
to 4 feet in diameter — little underwood and 
no cane. Nearly as rich as best cane land. 

(No. 6, p. 331.) Palmetto land— Large 
trees — small cane. Soil 4 to 10 feet deep. 
Wet and cold before being cultivated, but 
afterwards dry and in good tilth. 

(fNo. 31, p. 333 and 272.) Post oak 
land. Montgomery— F. Elmore. Vegetable 
matter,^ per cent., and no carbonate of lime. 

(fNo. 29, p. .333 and 272.) Montgome- 
ry — F. Elmore. Open prairie—mahogany 
colored. Vegetable matter, 38 per cent. 
No limestone [or carbonate of lime.] 

To these may.be added very many other 
w post oak" soils, rich, of medium fertility 
and poor, which 1 lately examined and test- 
ed, in place, and which, like all the above 
contained not a particle of carbonate of lime. 

In endeavoring to arrange the foregoing 
soils into classes, it is possible that mistakes 
may have been made, especially as to some 
of these copied from the reports of others. 



t No. 29 is here put down as reported by Dr. 
R. W. Gibbes. But from the different result (in 
abseace of carbonnfe oT lime) from nil other 
'•open prairie'' soil, I suspect a mistakn in la- 
belling the specimen — ;\x\.\ the more so, because 
it agrees precisely in its parts with the prece- 
ding, No. ai. 



For the terms used are not only often inac 
curate in the general signification, but they 
are also applied differently in different lo- 
calities, and consequently by different 
writers. Thus " bald" and " open" prairie, 
are used by different persons to designate 
the richest, as well as the poorest land. 
Other confine " bald" to the extremely cal- 
careous and also poor praries. " Slue" is 
used by some for low and formerly wet bot- 
toms only, and by others, '-slue prairie" is 
evidently used as synonymous with " wood- 
ed prairie." 

In addition to the " open" or " bald prai- 
rie" which at first might have been rich, in 
after time, in many cases, by continued ex- 
hausting tillage, and by washing, has become 
very poor. Thus, there may be doubt as to 
whether some samples should have been 
placed in the second or the third of the 
above divisions. 

If the very large proportions of vegetable 
(or organic) matter, stated in every one of 
twelve analyses made by Drs. Cooper, Gibbes 
and Nott, are usual in all these calcareous 
lands, it is a very curious and important 
fact, which well deserves the attention of the 
proprietors in reference to the future fertility 
and production of their lands, and also of 
chemits and scientific agriculturists, as being 
a novel and very interesting fact in agricul- 
tural chemistry. Both as a question of agri- 
cultural science, and of agricultural economy 
and improvement, the proper and thorough 
investigation of these soils by a competent 
and faithful chemist, would be rewarded by 
most interesting and important results. 

According to my own partial analyses, 
and rough testing of numerous specimens of 
soils and of general examinations of the 
lands, there can be no question of the remark- 
able and general abundance of carbonate 
of lime in the calcareous soils — and of its 
total absence in the " post oak lands — of the 
great deficiency of fine silicious sand, and 
the entire general absence of coarse, in both 
kinds — and the unusual and very large pro- 
portion of fine clay. And, if the twelve 
analyses of different soils and subsoils in 
Lowndes, by Drs. Cooper, Gibbes, and Nott 
are to be taken as indications of the general 
constitution of the black and calcareous 
soils, there is also as remarkable and unu- 
sual an excess of vegetable matter — and 
more than has been found in any other soils 
yet known, except in peaty soils. 
To be Continued. 






I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



465 



tor the Southern Planter. 

Meteorological Inquiries Answered. 

Observatory, Washington, \ 
29th June, I860, j 

(iENTLEMEN : 

Though your letters differ in their dates, 
and are written from places widely apart, 
they relate to the same subject, and reach 
me about the same time. The, answer to 
one is answer to the other, and there- 
fore I make but one reply. 

You tell me that the seasons appear to be 
sadly out of joint in Texas ; that every- 
thing with you is burnt up for the want of 
rain ; and that it is reported there I have 
predicted that Western Texas will ulti- 
mately, and that, too, at no distant day, be- 
come a desert 

You ask me for the grounds of this be- 
lief, and if I ever said so. 

In the first place, I never said any such 
thing ; and in the next place, no sane man 
can say he has any ground whatever for 
any such belief. Nor can I imagine how 
such arrant nonsense as predictions about 
the weather we are to have the next 
month, or year, or generation, came to be 
placed in my mouth. 

I tell you what I have said, though, 
and what I say now : I say that if the ag- 
riculturists would give me their counte- 
nance, and Government its leave, in extend- 
ing my meteorological investigations to the 
land, I could render a service to the cause 
of science, from which farming, and plant- 
ing, and grazing would receive benefits as 
signal as those which commerce and naviga- 
tion have derived from our meteorological 
labours at sea. 

You know that some six or eight years 
ago, the principal maritime nations of Eu- 
rope were invited to co-operate with us in 
a system of meteorological observations at 
sea ; and that in a conference held at Brus- 
sels for the purpose, a plan of observations 
was agreed upon, and that ships now, both 
men-of-war and merchant-men, are engaged 
under all flags in carrying out this system. 
It is upon the plan of voluntary co-opera- 
tion. From it, discoveries most important 
to science and valuable to navigation have 
been made. I have asked to have the 
plan extended to the shore, maintaining 
that if it were, I could secure there the 
volunteer co-operation in every county in 
30 



every State, of at least one farmer, to ob- 
serve and report upoq the weather; that 
with such an organization, as much may be 
done for agriculture and the industrial pur- 
suits of the land, as l.as been accomplish- 
ed for those of the sea. 

By connecting with this plan a system of 
daily telegraphic reports of wind and 
weather, I believe warning more or less am- 
ple might be given of every storm that 
comes where the telegraph gees. I have 
stated this officially, and urged it publicly. 
But jealousies and other miserable influ- 
ences of one sort or another have hitherto 
stood in the way of its adoption. 

I think the magnetic telegraph is capa- 
pable Of being made the most powerful 
meteorological implement of the age. In 
proper lands, it can be made to give warn- 
ing of every coming change in the 
weather ; and it is a reproach to us as a 
nation, who have a greater extent of tele- 
graph than all the world beside, that it 
should not be turned to account in this re- 
spect. 

AYhen I first appealed to ship-masters 
and owners for their co-operation, in these 
researches at sea, they turned as deaf an 
ear as the farmers and planters have done 
about extending these researches to the land. 
But I got leave to go ahead, and make 
the trial with such materials as I could lay 
hands on, or find by ransacking garrets 
and overhauling old sea-journals. 

A chart embodying the results was pub- 
lished ; a ship-master was persuaded to 
take it to sea with him, to go by it, and 
give it a trial. He did so ; and to the as- 
tonishment of everybody he went to Rio, 
discharged cargo, took in another, and re- 
turned home in little more than the time it 
usually took to go. 

After that, there was no lack of co-ope- 
ration ; and in a little while, without 
'money or patronage, and with nothing to 
give tor the service but a chart, I had a 
fleet of more than a thousand sail engaged 
night and day, and on all parts of the 
j ocean, in making and recording the requi- 
site observations. 

Do you ask, why do I not do the same 
thing for the agriculturists? Simply be- 
cause I can't get the leave. The law al- 
lows me to discuss the observations that 
'are made on board ship at sea, but I am 



466 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[Auatrsr 



not permitted to touch one that is made on 
a farm ashore. 

If you and others desire information 
from me about the climatology of Texas, I 
have to say, I should be most happy to give 
it. But before I can attempt it, you must 
assist me to procure the requisite data ; and 
that is to be done by using your influence 
with your Representatives in Congress in 
favour of the passage of an Act, to enable 
me to extend my meteorological investiga- 
tions to the land, and to use the mag- 
netic telegraph as a meteorological imple- 
ment. 

Do that — and let those who are interest- 
ed in the soil in other States, do the same 
by their Representatives, and you shall 
soon have results that will prove valuable 
not only to the industrial pursuits of the 
country, but to the convenience, and health, 
and advancement in knowledge, of the peo- 
ple also. 

In urging the extension of this beautiful 
and beneficial system of generous co-opera- 
tion to the land, it may not be amiss to 
state a few facts connected with the histo- 
ry of it at sea. At first, I invoked co-ope- 
ration from American ship-masters atone. 
After the utility of the plan had been de- 
monstrated by the results derived from the 
observations afforded by them, then the im- 
portance of increasing the number of ob- 
servers became manifest. All who go 
down to the sea in ships were invited to 
take part in the plan. They did so; and 
thus was established the most extensive, 
useful and important system of meteorolog- 
ical research that has ever been attempted. 
Its praises are sung the world over. The 
wisest philosophers, the greatest statesmen, 
and the most powerful nations have bestow- 
ed upon it the commendation of their 
" Well done," and rendered homage to it. 

The atmosphere covers the land as well 
as the sea, and why should not this system, 
which costs nothing except the hire of a 
few computers to discuss the observation, 
after they are made, — why, I say, should 
not this inexpensive system of meteorolog- 
ical investigation be extended to the land, 
and so be made universal? Two-thirds of 
the surface of our planet is covered by sea, 
and our researches embrace the sea — why 
should they not include the other tfoird; 
also ? 

We took the lead in inaugurating this 
plan at sea, and the meteorologists of Eu- 



rope look to us to take the lead for the land 
also. The most eminent among them there, 
say they are waiting for us. Each nation 
will take care of its own observations ; but 
the point is so to make them, that any ob- 
servation by any one may be compared 
with all the corresponding observations by 
all the others, and thus make the " whole 
world kin." 

Ten times as much money as this plan? 
would cost is now annually spefrt in one 
way or another for the advancement of me- 
teorology ; but, from this expenditure the 
cause of the science is not advanced one- 
tenth part as much as by the adoption of 
the plan proposed, it would be. 

But it is not the husbandman alone that 
is practically— -may I be permitted to say, 
pecuniarily ? — interested in this scheme. 
In pleading the cause of science, I often? 
find an appeal to the pocket-nerve very 
telling. 

The question has been asked, and an- 
swered before the Society of Acclimation 
in France : " At present, what is meteorol- 
ogy to the science of political economy? 
Answer: Nothing. What should it be? 
Answer: Everything."* 

The object of this interesting Society is r 
to encourage the introduction from one 
country to another of new plants and ani- 
mals ; and when it is proposed to introduce 
either into France, for instance, the first 
question is, what is the climate of its hab- 
itat, and in what part of France shall we 
find a climate to correspond ? So the whole 
affair is one of meteorology. 

Impressed with the notion that the Al- 
paca and Vicuna of South America would r 
were they acclimated to any of the moun- 
tainous regions of this country, prove al- 
most, if not altogether, as valuable as the 
sheep and the goat, I proposed last fall 
their introduction, to the Agricultural So- 
ciety of Tennessee. 

So valuable are they considered in their 
native hills, that it is against the laws both 
of Peru and Bolivia, where they most 
abound, to export them. 

However, having been heartily and ably 
seconded in other matters of public Con- 
cern by our most worthy minister, John 
Randolph Clay, at the court of Lima, I 
sought and most readily obtained his great 



M. Becquerel. 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



467 



Influence with the governments there. He 
was glad, true representative of a great na- 
tion as he is, to assist in such a good work, 
and has already obtained from the govern- 
ment of Bolivia a permit for me to ex- 
port fifty of each kind. Thetsc are at the 
service, in whole or in part, of any gentle- 
men, not speculators, who will send for 
them and bring them into the country. I 
think they may do well in the mountains 
of Tennessee, Virginia, and other States, 
bordering both on the Atlantic and the 
Pacific. But that is opinion. Had I been 
permitted to extend our meteorological sys- 
to the land, my opinion upon the subject, 
whatever it be, would then have been 
based on certain and positive knowledge. 
A couple of gentlemen from Tennessee 



Fertilizers. 

BY HON. THOMAS G. CLEMSON, LL. D. 

[Abridged from Patent Office Report of 
1859, and divided into three parts. — Ed. 
So. Planter. 

PART I. 
From the day when the fat went forth, 
* In th<» sweat of thy face shalt thou eat 
bread," agriculture took its place among the 
arts of the world. It is true, while popu- 
lation was sparse, and man depended first 
on game and then on flocks and herds, this 
art made little or no progress. The tropical 
climate, where the infancy of man seems to 
have been cradled, would appear also to 
have led him to defer the necessity of much 
attention to it. Very soon, however, the 



propose to send for at least a portion of: increasing density of population must have 

necessitated its development, since we find 
that the Egyptians, at the earliest period to 
which history reaches, were already skilful 
agriculturists, and bad carried the art to 
such a point of perfection as not only to 
have sustained their own dense population, 
but to have made Egypt the granary of the 
world. That it was not entirely the fertili- 
ty of that favored region to which this was 
due, we have evidence in the present state 
of that country. The Nile still overflows 
the land with fatness, and the sun still sheds 
its vivifying influence ; yet, there, agricul- 
ture has sunk to its lowest ebb, and the 
country scarce supports its, miserable tribes; 
its immense world-renowned monuments 
alone remain to show what the land once 
was. Egypt is the most striking proof 
which history presents of the inseparable 



these noble herds, with the view of trying 
the experiment in that State. 

Pray excuse me for writing so long a 
reply. You have asked questions that I 
cannot answer. If you would have an- 
swers, not only you, but our friends in 
every State must assist in enabling me to 
procure the data by extending my researches 
landward. 

Respectfully, &c, 

M. F. MAURY. 
To Messrs. Monroe Hardeman, et al. 
Prairie Lea, Caldwell Co., Texas. 
And to Messrs. A. P. Swisher and 

John Spence, Bastrop, Texas. 



Nature the best Economist. 
The Paris journals announce that 



the 



Government has decreed that the sea-weed connection between the high state of civili- 
waslred upon the coast of Normandy and zation and a high development of agricul- 
Brittany shall be gathered as wadding for tural resources. They rise and fall together, 
artillery. It keeps the guns cool and is not > and the prosperity and, indeed, existence of 
liable to ignition. Cotton and wool have the one is identical with the other. Let 
hitherto been used. Here we have another that nation beware, whose exhausted fields 
instance given to the world of tho value of are forcing her population to emigrate. Civ- 



things too often deemed worthless. In the 
great laboratory of nature there is nothing 
that exists that will not perforin uses, could 
the ministry of man, with cunning arts fa- 



ilization, in its highest degree, cannot exist 
without dense population ; nor dense popu- 
lation, without calling to its aid the highest 
resources of agriculture. 



miliar, adapt it to the offices for which it is Egypt stands a livini 



.„ or rather, a dead 
fitted. Science in our day is only on the! type of the intimate connection between 
threshold of the great arena of nature, | population and agriculture. China is one 
which yet will reveal, through common and [equally striking, on the opposite side. For 
discarded things, means of adding a thou-! how many thousand years has her pains- 
sand benefits to mankind. Nothing is so taking care for every foot of her soil main- 
worthless to a people that it ought to be'tained her prosperous and dense legions, in 
thrown away. |a region comparatively but little favored by 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



Nature, and given a respectable position 
among nations to a people but little intel- 
lectually gifted ! How many wonderful 
discoveries do we owe to the necessities of 
their compact masses ! The struggle for 
existence has always been one of the great- 
est stimulants to the activity of the human 
mind. 

This continuous prosperity, through a 
long series of centuries, is owing to the sed- 
ulous care of the government. No people, 
left to themselves, will think of future gen- 
erations ; and it is for that reason that all 
governments should foster and aid the de- 
velopment of this most important of arts, as 
government only can.* This is so well un- 
derstood in the present day, by all nations, 
that those who govern are turning their at- 
tention daily more and more to its aid and 
advancement. England has done so by di- 
rect legislation ; her aristocracy, also an in- 
tegral part of her government, having, conse- 
quently, the weight necessary to carry out a 
continuous system, has given all the impe- 
tus of this weight and their great wealth to 
its energetic development. 

It is only within comparatively few years 
that science has revealed to us the true com- 
position of bodies and the laws that govern 
their action; thus developing the wonderful 
resources of Nature, and reducing that to 
system which, in the time of our forefathers, 
was ignorant practice based upon hereditary 
experience. 

It is true that this subject has occupied, 
from the earliest limes, the attention of 
statesmen, philosophers and philanthropists; 
but they only collected and reasoned from 
the results of experience, without entering 
into the laws which led to and governed the 
results which they recorded. Agriculture, 
therefore, now stands upon a basis far differ- 



* Under the complex system which prevails 
in this country, there can be no doubt that the 
power is inherent in, and of binding obligation 
upon the State governments, to "foster and aid 
the development of this most important of arts, 1 ' 
but, whether the Federal Government has any di- 
rect power over the subject, or can any other- 
wise •' foster and aid'' agriculture, than through 
the incidental effects of the lawful exercise of its 
.^j)ecified, constitutional powers, admits of very 
grave doubt; and in view of the uncertainty in 
the premises, therefore, it had better be let alone 
before it is meddled with, lest haply, by the ex- 
ercise of the questionable prerogative, it may 
be found fighting against the rights of the States. 

W. 



ent from what it has hitherto occupied; and 
not working, as we have heretofore, in the 
dark, but knowing where to look for causes 
and effects, we may expect in the next cen- 
tury to make a stride that will give to this 
art, or rather convocation of arts, a place 
among the exact sciences. But this very 
rapidity of advancement will render it more 
fatal to be left behind in the race; and nei- 
ther nations nor individuals can stand su- 
pinely by, depending upon the past, and ex- 
hausting the accumulated resources of Na- 
ture, without individual and national ruin. 

^s H« * * * * 

One of the most interesting and import- 
ant subjects to the agriculturist is, of course, 
the means of keeping up, or restoring the 
fertility of his land ; and that he may not 
work in the dark, it is essential that he 
should understand the nature and action of 
soils, the functions of plants, and the opera- 
tion of fertilizers. 

It is important we should always bear in 
mind that this earth is not a heterogeneous 
mixture of an indefinite number of illy-de- 
fined substances, but, on the contrary, the 
different objects or forms of matter which 
present themselves to our senses are limited 
in the number of their constituents; as far 
as knowledge extends they do not exceed 
sixty-two. 

Each substance is sui generis, and, no mat- 
ter from whence taken, possesses precisely 
similar properties, and is governed by inva- 
riable laws in its action upon other sub- 
stances. They are solid, liquid, or aeriform, 
according to circumstances. Water is a fa- 
miliar example; it is solid in the form of 
ice, liquid in water, and aeriform in steam. 

Substances have been created once and 
forever ; they may change place, form, and 
combinations, but Mich a thing as blotting 
out of existence, or re-creation, is impossi- 
ble. Some are. abundant, while others are 
exceedingly rare, and difficult to procure. 
To show the small or limited number of sub- 
stances which enter into the bodies around 
us, it is only necessary to remember that the 
great mineral masses, which form by far the 
largest portion of the earth, are composed, 
as far as our knowledge extends, of a few 
elementary principles. Water is composed 
of two gases, and the air we breathe like- 
wise of two gases, one of which is common 
alike to air and water. Nor do. they com- 
bine in an indefinite manner; they unite 
with each other in simple, definite propor- 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



4G0 



portions, multiples the one of the other, 
and the quantity rarely surpasses the pro- 
portion of five to one. Substances may be, 
it is true, heterogeneously mixed in any pro- 
portions, and these mixtures present endless 
varieties, but are not chemical compounds, 
and do not enter into the category ot which 
we are speaking. 

Matter may be divided into that which 
lias life, and that which is without life. The 
principal part of the substances which go 
to compose organic beings exists around us, 
in the air we breathe, (water, carbonic acid, 
nitrogen). There are other substances not 
less essential to organic life, but which are 
found to enter their composition in infinitely 
smaller quantities. These are found in the 
ashes, after incineration of any vegetable or 
animal tfiatter. We shall learn their com- 
position as we proceed. 

Those things which are endowed with vi- 
tality are produced, then increase, and ma- 
ture. Inorganic substances increase by the 
juxtaposition of similar parts, and their form 
is destroyed by forces exterior to themselves, 
while organisms reproduce their like, and 
have a period of existence determined by 
laws, which fix their time of growth, decay, 
and' death. Of organic life there are two 
distinct classes, one receiving its food through 
a digestive canal, and is endowed with loco- 
motion ; the other is fixed by roots to the 
soil. This is not rigorously correct, but suf- 
ficiently so for our present purpose. The 
last, or vegetable productions, receive a por- 
tion of their food through their roots, and 
another through their leaves. The root an- 
swers a double purpose, that of fixing the 
plant in the earth, and drawing from it 
nourishment. Vegetable anatomy informs 
us that among the elements of their con- 
struction there are cells, which are found in 
all plants, whatever character they may 
have, and those cells, by transformations and 
successive development, form fibres, tubes, 
or elongated canals. While the character- 
istics of the animal and vegetable chsses 
are thus marked, the qualitative chemical 
composition of both is identical ; the prin- 
cipal organic portions of which — I do not 
allude to the mineral constituents, or ash, 
and there is great similarity in that respect 
— may be said to express the condensation 
of the gases of which they are composed. 
Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen, 
form the volatile portions; and silex, lime, 
potash, soda ; magnesia, iron, sulphur and 



phosphorus, the mineral parts. It is mainly 
with those substances that we have to deal 
in connection with fertility or agriculture. 
If we can turn a never-ceasing influx of 
them into our fields, the problem of fertility 
is solved, and it remains for us to consider 
their properties, their history, their action 
the one uporf the other, and the means that 
have heretofore been employed of making 
them subservient to our wants. 

Plants are divided into two distinct class- 
es, those that receive their increment from 
within and those that receive their growth 
on the exterior. The first are called endo- 
gens, the latter exogens. All organized 
bodies have forms and properties peculiar 
and inherent to themselves, and those forms 
and properties characterize the parts as well 
as the whole ; and it is that particular form 
and the properties of the parts that render 
it what it is and make it a living thing. 
Some plants go through the different stages 
of germination, growth, fructification, and 
death in one season; they are called annuals. 
Others live through a succession of years, 
and are called perennial. 

It is through the roots that the ash or 
mineral ingredient enters [a plant,] while 
the leaves absorb from the atmosphere the 
organic or combustible portion. The power 
of assimilation appears to be dependent upon 
the action of light. A plant placed in wa- 
ter, containing carbonic acid, and exposed 
to the light of the sun, absorbs the acid and 
gives off oxygen. At night the action is 
reversed, and carbonic acid is emitted, when 
oxygen is assimilated. Every one has re- 
marked the tendency of plants to lean to- 
wards the sun, and where they are kept in 
cellars they will bend even several leet from 
the perpendicular to reeeive the rays of 
light that may enter through an aperture. 
In the early stages of plant-life, the carbon 
of the soil enters through the roots ; but 
when the plant has risen above the ground, 
and its leaves are formed, the carbon of the 
soil is no longer needed, and it is probable that 
what is required is entirely assimilated from 
the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. 

The sap rises from the roots through the 
internal vessels to the leaves, becomes car- 
bonized by the decomposition of the car- 
bonic acid of the atmosphere, and passes 
down into the plant, forming ligneous fiber, 
&c. We shall not enter into the subject of 
vegetable physiology; that would be foreign 



470 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



to our purpose. Fertility depends at once 
upon the chemical composition and mechan- 
ical condition of the soil; nor can it be inde- 
pendent of subsoil and climatic influences. 
The latter question, including the chemistry 
of ozone, is one of great intricacy. It is so 
interwoven with heat, electricity, moisture, 
and chemical reaction as almost to baffle in- 
vestigation. Plants generate and evolve 
heat, and possess the power of preventing 
their juices from freezing at a degree of 
temperature far below that at which conge- 
lation would take place were the plant dead. 
Fertility is a relative term, and is dependent 
upon multifarious influences. A certain 
degree of heat and moisture is essential to 
life ; without them, there can be no germi- 
nation nor maturation of seed ; nor are these 
essentials independent of soil, or rather its 
constituents, we may say one constituent, 
for the absence or presence of one substance 
may secure fertility or produce sterility. 

With these preliminary remarks, we pass 
to the consideration of water in its connec- 
tion with fertility : 

Water in a perfectly pure state is com- 
posed of two volumes of hydrogen gas and 
one of oxygen, and about 89 parts of oxygen 
and 11 of hydrogen by weight. When you 
mix the two gases they will remain uncom- 
bined for an indefinite period, unless the 
mixture should be submitted to the action 
of heat or electricity. The combination 
then takes place with the manifestation of 
stupendous force. The two components 
may be separated by electricity. Water 
enters into the composition of all vegetable 
and animal structures. It is one of the 
principal constituents of blood, milk, and 
sap. By its assistance, silex and other in- 
soluble substances enter into circulation, and 
are assimilated by animals and vegetables. 
It is found to make part of all grains,, 
woods, leaves, &c. Its absence would pro- 
duce universal death. It enters into all our 
domestic operations, and forms part of all 
alcoholic beverages and articles of food. It 
is essential to production, and it may be 
said that fertility in any locality is in direct 
proportion to humidity, and sterility in pro- 
portion to its absence. The truth of this 
proposition is verified in a remarkable de- 
gree in the deserts of Sahara and the west- 
ern plains of this continent. 

Water is never obtained pure from natu- 
ral sources; it is procured by distillation. 
That which issues from springs, generally 



contains mineral substances, and always im- 
purities of a gaseous nature. There are 
waters, even river waters, that at times 
evaporate without residuum. Such is the 
case of the Schuylkill, at Philadelphia. We 
have used it for months together, in analy- 
sis. Rain-water, and that which falls in 
the form of dew, are also impure. The 
former, though much freer from impurities 
than that which has flowed over the ground, 
comes down charged with all the impurities 
of the atmosphere, which it washes as it 
descends. These substances are varied and 
numerous, consisting of impalpable sand, ve- 
getable and animal particles, also salt taken 
up from the ocean. That which first falls 
after a drought is often charged with the 
offensive odor of animal perspiration, excre- 
ments, and putrefaction. It a\M brings 
down fishes and frogs, and at times organ- 
isms and pollen, to the extent of tinging 
the surface of the earth with the color of 
the adventitious matter. Rain-water always 
contains ammonia and nitric acid. These 
are partly formed by the action of electricity 
in the atmosphere, and are partly the result 
of decompositions which take place on the 
surface of the earth and in the air. 

Pure water is insipid and unhealthy. 
That taken from springs or rivers, indepen- 
dent of any mineral ingredients which it 
may hold in solution, always contains a 
quantity of oxygen gas, the great supporter 
of life and combustion. This imparts a 
tonic-invigorating quality to cold water, 
which, when boiled, it does not possess; to 
the latter, emetic qualities are attributed. 
Water, from its known quality of containing 
oxygen in weak combination, or in an eva- 
nescent form, together with carbonic acid, 
is a powerful and essential agent in chemi- 
cal action, which is ever occurring in the 
soil, &c. The substances held in solution 
vary in different rivers and different parts 
of the same stream, both in kind and in 

proportions of the saline ingredients. 

****** 

Much has been written upon the sewerage 
of cities throughout the world. This is a 
subject of great importance, not only to the 
agricultural wealth of the country, but im- 
minent to its sanitary condition. The value 
that is daily washed into rivulets from our 
lands, and thence to the sea, is incalculable. 
Mr. Grey, in speaking of the Medloch, says : 
" it receives the drainage of not more than 
100,000, and contains sufficient phosphorio 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER, 



471 



acid to supply 95,000 acres of wheat, 184,- 
000 acres of potatoes, or 280,000 acres of 
oats, and to hold in solution a sufficient 
quantity of silica to supply 50,000 acres of 
wheat," 

A distinguished agricultural writer in 
1845 makes the following remarks upon 
the subject of the sewerage of Lo.jdon : 

"By carefully conducted experiments and 
very accurate gaugings, it has been found 
that the chief London sewers convey daily 



mountainous regions ; and less Ml the inte- 
rior of continents far removed from rivers, 
lakes, or the ocean. A slight ehange in 
the temperature of an atmosphere, saturated 
with humidity, produces logs, clouds, and 
rains; and by congelation, snow, <fcc. A 
continuous evaporation lakes place from the 
ocean, lakes, rivers, and the soil, and a re- 
turn to the earth in form of dew and rain. 
The amount of evaporation that takes place 
in a country is greatly influenced by the 



into the Thames about 115,000 tons of mix- , operations of the farmer. In a report made 
ed drainage, consisting, on an average eom-]by Andrew Brown and Dr. M. W. Dickeson 



putation, of one part of solid and twenty- 
five absolutely fluid matters; bat if we only 
.allow one part in thirty of this iminerase 
mass to be composed of solid substances, 
then we have the large quantity of more 
than 3,800 [tons] of solid manure daily 
poured into the river from London alone, 
consisting principally of excrements, soot, 
and the debris of the London streets, which 
is chiefly carbonate of lime; thus, allowing 
twenty tons of the manure as a dressing for 
an acre of ground, there is evidently a 
quantity of solid manure annually poured 
into the river equal to fertilising more than 
50,000 acres of the poorest cultivated land ! 
The quantity of food thus lost to the coun- 
try by this heedless waste of manure is 
enormous; for only allowing one crop of 
wheat to be raised on these 50,000 acres 
that would be equal to the maintenance 
(calculating upon' an average produce of 
three quarters of wheat per acre) of 150,- 
000 persons- London, too, is only one 
huge instance of this thoughtless waste of 
the agricultural riches of the soil of Eng- 
land. From every other English city, every 
town, every hamlet, is hourly passing into 
the sea a proportionate waste of liquid ma- 
nure ; and I have only spoken of the solid 
or mechanically suspended matters of the 
average ; the absolutely fluid portion is still 
rich in urine, ammoniacal salts, soda," &c. 
The earth is surrounded by water in a 
state of vapor, and the quantity varies ac- 
cording to the temperature of the atmos- 
phere and other circumstances. Verner 
found as a mean of fifty experiments, in 
1,000 parts of air, 8.47 parts of vapor. In 
the forenoon, and before two o'clock, the 
mean was 7.97 ; and tetween two p. in. and 
evening, 8.85. There is more humidity in 
the atmosphere during the day than at 
night; and more during the summer than 
winter; more in low, flat countries than in 



to the American Association, in 1849, those 
gentlemen remark: "that the annual quan- 
tity of rain that falls in the valley of the 
Mississippi may be estimated at 169,128,- 
960,000,000 cubic feet, which is about 11|, 
or 11.3636, times the quantity which is dis- 
charged by the river. There can be but 
two ways by which this immense quantity 
q( water can make its escape from the val- 
ley; one is by the eourse of the river, and 
the other by evaporation ; 8-91 parts are 
carried off by the river, and 83-91 parts by 
evaporation. Thus, we arrive at a fact of 
the most momentous importance to the 
planting interests of Louisiana and Missis- 
sippi ; for it will be at once perceived that 
tise more exhalations are promoted, the less 
liable will the low or bottom lands of these 
two States be to the periodical inundations 
by the river. 

" If it be asked by what process it is ex- 
pected that evaporation can be promoted 
over such an extensive area as the Missis- 
sippi valley, so as visibly and permanently 
to affeet the planting interests of the above- 
named States; the answer will be found in 
the fact that the process has been, and is 
now, in the most rapid and successful pro- 
gress, and of that kind which is the best 
calculated to produce so desirable a result, 
viz: the clearing of such large portions of 
the valley of its forests for the promotion 
of agriculture, and the consequent exposure 
of the lands to the action of the sun and 
winds, the very best promoters of the evap- 
orating process, particularly on a large scale. 

" So rapid is the progress of this increased 
exposure, and its consequent evaporating 
tendency, and so visible have been its effects 
on the Mississippi river, that we may hazard 
the assertion with safety, that there : s not 
now, by twenty -five per cent., as much water 
passing down the Mississippi as there was 
twenty-five years ago; for at and prior to 



472 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



that time, there were annual inundations of 
many feet and long periods of submergence 
of almost all the bottom lands, from the 
•bluffs on one side. of the river bottom to 
those on the other side. Such lands were 
at that period accounted valueless, and to 
such a degree that but little or no hopes 
were entertained of the practicability of 
their redemption by any artificial means — 
that is, on any general scale ; but such has 
been the diminution in the annual quantity 
of water discharged from the valley, that 
those lands have been progressively and 
rapidly redeemed from overflow, until very 
great portions of them are now in the high- 
est state of cultivation, and with but slight 
assistance from art in the way ot embank- 
ments, and these such as could not have 
been at all available against the overwhelm- 
ing effects of floods and the length of time 
of their continuance ; for then there were 
annual inundations, both deep and expan- 
sive, of the waters, over almost all the bot- 
tom lands, but now the river seldom rises to 
the same elevation as formerly, and when it 
does, it is of much shorter duration, and the 
waters are almost exclusively confined to the 
channel of the river, in place of being- 
spread over almost all the bottom lands the 
whole spring and early part of the summer." 

Such changes are progressing, generally 
unsuspected and overlooked, but not the 
less sure. 

The art of producing large crops by 
means of artificial supplies of water has 
been practised from remote ages in the 
warm countries of the world. * * * * 
Virgil tells how to bring down the waters 
of a rivulet upon the sown corn, and, when 
suffering from heat, to convey the vivifying 
liquid from the crown of the declivity, in 
channels, to the roots of the plants. Colu- 
mella, Pliny, Cato, Varro, &c, all dwell up- 
on the importance of irrigation. It is found 
profitable in England to irrigate plantations 
of willows and other semi-aquatic trees upon 
dry soils. The efficiency of irrigation is 
dependent upon many considerations; one 
of the principal is the nature of the subsoil. 
When it is a tenacious clay, the preparation 
consists in suitable under-draining, that 
would be useless- where the subsoil is sand 
or open gravel. 

Some waters are injurious. Certain salts 
of iron are known to be unfavorable to vege- 
tation. Waters issuing from factories im- 
pregnated with animal and vegetable sub- 



stances, such as the waters of distilleries, 
breweries, slaughter-houses, &c, are highly 
fertilizing; others issuing from chemical 
establishments, calico printing factories, &c, 
injurious. Saltwater in small quantities are 
may be found useful upon certain plants, 
such as the grasses, asparagus, &c, while 
they are positively injurious to such plants 
as rice. The salt marshes of France are 
known to produce a superior quality of 
mutton, which commands a high price, and 
is known in the French market under the 
name of " pres sale." 

Waters impregnated with carbonate and 
sulphate of lime are very fertilizing. In 
certain parts of Germany, a weak solution 
of sulphuric acid has been employed for 
irrigating grass lands with great advantage. 
Those which hold in suspension mud and 
other detritus, are highly useful, particular- 
ly on sandy soils; the fine mud settles in 
the pores, and gives consistency, but any 
soil would be benefited by holding mud in 
suspension, and that, of course, in propor- 
tion to the amount of organic and saline 
matter in the mud. 

Sir Humphrey Davy thought that the 
protection of grasses from frost during the 
winter season was of great importance, for 
a meadow irrigated in winter is preserved 
from sudden alterations, and from the effect 
of the roots being thrown out of the ground 
by alternate freezings and thawings. The 
water immediately in contact with the roots 
of the grass is rarely below 40° Fahrenheit. 
In the month of March, in a meadow near 
Hungerford, the air was, at 7 o'clock A. M., 
at 29°. The water was frozen above the 
grass, and the temperature of the soil below 
the water in which the' roots were growing 
was 43° While the temperature is thus 
prevented from falling during the winter, it 
is kept cool during the summer. 

Irrigation supposes water in motion; if 
it be allowed to stand and stagnate, its 
effects would destroy the objects sought to 
be accomplished. Instead of fine grasses 
we would have a growth of carices^ junci, 
and other coarse plants of no value. 

Sir John Sinclair says that the advan- 
tages of meadow irrigation are chiefly as 
follows : 

First. — With the exception of warping, 
it is by far the easiest, cheapest and most 
certain mode of improving poor land, par- 
ticularly if it is of a dry and gravelly 
nature. 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



47;$ 



important effect, which cannot be obtained 
without it: we allude to aeration — an influ- 
ence of great importance, by which not 
only the organic portions of the soil are, by 
aid of air circulation, brought into a state 
of decomposition; but gases are evolved, new 
combinations formed, the inert mineral con- 
stituents are also decomposed, new salts are 
created, and numerous chemical actions take 
place, producing active food for plant-life. 
It is, of course, necessary to distinguish 
between a wholesome humidity and destruc- 
tive saturation ; while the one is to be che- 
rished, the other must be avoided. On the 
subject of under-draining we shall not enter ; 
its importance is too great for a cursory no- 
tice in a paper of this kind, and we refer 
our readers to the many valuable publica- 
tions written upon the subject. 

Liebig makes the following beautiful re- 
marks : 

" There is not to be found in chemistry a 

more wonderful phenomenon, and which 

more confounds all human wisdom, than is 

presented by the soil of a garden or field. 

" By the simplest experiment, any one 

art of itself, and one that requires special, may satisfy himself that rain water, filtered 

acquirements for its adaptation.* through field or garden soil, does not dis- 

The direct action of the fertilizing con- solve out a trace of potash, ammonia, silicic, 

stituents of water are not the only influences or phosphoric acid. The soil does not give 

which that substance exerts upon our fields up to the water one particle of the food of 



Second. — Land once improved by irriga- 
tion is put into a state of perpetual fertility, 
without any occasion for manure or trouble 
of weeding, or any other material expense. 

Third. — It becomes so productive as to 
yield the largest bulk of hay, beside abun- 
dance of the very best support for ewes and 
lambs in the spring, and for cows and other 
cattle in the autumn of every year. 

Fourth. — In favorable situations, it pro- 
duces very early grass in the spring, when 
it is doubly valuable. 

Fifth. — Not only is the land thus render- 
ed fertile without having any occasion for 
manure, but it produces food for animals, 
which is converted into manure, to be -used 
on other lands; thus augmenting, in a com- 
pound proportion, that great source of fer- 
tility. 

The subject of irrigation is one of im- 
mense importance in a dry, arid climate, 
such as characterizes portions of the western 
plains particularly. It is paramount, and 
may be employed throughout the continent 
with advantages greater than any other ag- 
ricultural application. It is an important 



and growing crops. Its simple percolation 
through a soil has an important influence, 
by displacing gases and thus creating circu- 
lation of air and bringing a fresh supply of 



ameliorating agents. 



A little reflection will teach us to prevent 



plants which it contains. The most contin- 
uous rain cannot remove from the field, 
except mechanically, any of the constituent 
elements of its fertility. The soil not only 
retains firmly all the food of plants which 
is actually in it, but its power to preserve 



the disastrous consequences of the sudden all that may be useful to them extends much 
and powerful rains that fall in our climate, further. If rain, or rather water, holding 
If the ground is cultivated shallow, we in solution ammonia, potash, phosphoric and 
must Buffer from washing. A hill-side silicic acids, be brought in contact with the 
plowed two or three inches would meet with ' soil, these substances disappear almost imme- 
the same fate that we would expect if we diately from the solution. The soil with- 
were to expose an inclined looking-glass, 



upon which we had sprinkled sand. The 



draws them from the water. Only such 
substances are completely withdrawn by the 



deeper a soil is stirred the better rain will soil as are indispensable articles of food for 



will be absorbed, instead of running off; 
and the deeper the furrow the longer will 
the moisture be retained. The alternate 
influence of showeis and sunshine upon 
deeply-stirred land brings about another 



* See Stephens's Practical Irrigator, Smith's 
Observations on Irrigation, Brown's Treatise on 
Irrigation, Sir John Sinclair's Code of Agricul- 
ture, Voyage en Espagne, par M. Jaubert de 
Passa, Anleitung zum praktischen Ackerbau 
von Schwerz, Lr. 1. 



plants. All others remain wholly or in part 
in solution." 

In connection with this interesting sub- 
ject, it may be remarked that the absorbent 
power of soils varies according to their com- 
position. It is greater in clays than those 
which are silicious or sandy, but belongs to 
all, more or less, not excepting those of a 
calcareous nature. Liebig tells us that if 
the phosphate of lime be dissolved in weak 
carbonic acid water, and the solution filtered 



474 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



through a soil, the phosphate of lime is 
removed from solution, and the same result 
takes place with the phosphate of magnesia 
and ammonia. This is a fact of great agri- 
cultural importance, from the constant occur- 
rence of those substances in organic ma- 
nures. 

The complete absorption of potash, am- 
monia, and phosphoric acid by the soil, and 
thus entering into combination and forming 
insoluble compounds, would appear to mili- 
tate against the received opinion, viz: that 
plant-food must necessarily be in a soluble 
state for assimilation. This is contradicted 
by the above Pacts. It is, besides, well known 
that plant vitality has the power, as it were, 
of corroding insoluble substances, and ab- 
sorbing them by the roots. Varieties of 
plants growing upon rocks contain large 
quantities of the substance of which the 
rocks is composed. Such is known to be tbe 
case with lichens growing on calcareous 
rocks. Again, the roots of the grape- vine 
have been found surrounding, and its root- 
lets insinuated in every manner, through, 
around, and enveloping a piece of bone, 
which finally disappears. Nor does it seem 
that assimilable food should necessarily be j 
soluble, provided it be in a state of atomic 
division. 

It has been stated that the constituents 
of plants are divided into two classes, or- 
ganic and inorganic. The first named are 
derived from water, carbonic acid, nitric 
acid, and ammonia, and may come from 
the air through the leaves, or from the soil 
through the roots. The inorganic constitu- 
ents are of" a different character, and can 
only be received from the soil and through 
the roots. It then becomes important that 
there should be deep preparation of the soil, 
in order to commingle the surface with that 
which underlies, that the roots in their search 
for food, (for it is proved that it does not 
circulate in the soil as it becomes fixed by 
combination,) may more readily come in 
contact with all the substances the plant 
requires to form the wonderful compound 
necessary to its growth and development. 
Deep preparation insures aeration, and the 
decomposition of the constituents of the 
soil is thus attained by the action of the 
atmospheric agents. Both carbonic and ni- 
tric acid, which are known to exist in the 
air and water, have a powerful action upon 
the soil, but unfortunately our knowledge 
upon that subject leaves much to be desired. 



The importance of minute division of the 
soil, and the manures which may be added, 
must, on reflection, be evident to every one. 
Plants assimilate food in a state of atomic 
division, and the nearer we approach that" 
point the better; beside which, they will 
more readily undergo those chemical changes 
which are ever taking place in Nature's 
great laboratory, the earth. By breaking 
the clods mechanically, by exposure to the 
air, and the freezing effects of water, the' 
mass is pulverized, and thus food, before 
locked up, is approached and used by the 
tender roots of the plant. 

" Plants cannot obtain from the soil more 
food than it contains. Further, its fertility 
is not to be measured by the whole quantity 
present in it, but only by that portion of the 
whole quantity which exists in the smallest 
particles of soil, for it is with such portions 
alone that the rootlets can come into close 
contact. 

" A piece of bone weighing one ounce, 
in a cubic foot of earth, produces no mark- 
ed effect on its fertility. But if this one 
ounce of phosphate of lime be uniformly 
distributed through eut the earth, it will suf- 
fice for the nourishment of one hundred 
and twenty wheat plants. 

" Of two fields with the same' amount of 
food, one may be very fertile, and the other 
very unfruitful, if the food is more uniformly 
distributed throughout the former than the 
latter. The common plough breaks and 
turns up the soil without mixing it. It only 
displaces, to a certain extent, the spots on 
which plants have already grown, but the 
spade breaks, turns, and mixes it thorough- 
ly. " (Liebig's Letters on Modern Agricul- 
ture, p. 108.) 

Those plants which reach maturity in a 
short time are materially affected by the 
preparation of the soil. Their powers of 
absorption are much greater in the spring 
than in the summer, when the leaves are 
being formed, and when the plant is in the 
full vigor of growth, than when it has roach- 
ed its maturity. We have a familiar in- 
stance of the importance of preparation in 
our corn crop, and the stimulus that is im- 
parted to it by constant working, by which 
food is continually renewed and brought into 
close contact with the roots, and the soil 
kept in a well pulverized state, thus increas- 
ing its absorbing powers. The descent of 
water through the soil, and its escape up- 
ward as vapor, tend to the same end, and 



1 



cor 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



475 



hence the great importance of undcrdrain- 

Chemists employ sulphuric acid in their 
experiments for absorbing moisture. Lime 
and caustic potash are also used. Soils pos- 
sess the absorbent power in an eminent de- 
gree, and it is by that inherent quality that 
plants are enabled to resist extreme droughts. 
The power of absorption depends greatly 
upon division, color, Sec. A dark soil ab- 
sorbs heat more readily than a light-colored 
one ; it also radiates heat quicker. When 
the sun sets, the earth begins to radiate; 
in proportion as it cools, will be the amount 
of dew deposited. When a gas passes to a 
liquid state, caloric is evolved ; such is also 
the effect when a liquid passes to a solid. 
The reverse occurs when a solid becomes 
liquid, or a liquid a gas. By. the conden- 
sation of vapor, or the fonnatien of dew, 
heat is evolved ; by the absorption of dew, 
a further degree of sensible heat is pro- 
duced. This process prevents a too sudden 
change of temperature in the surface of the 
earth, and which otherwise would have been 
sensibly affected by the too great radiation 
of heat. This equalization is brought about 
in a manner to excite our admiration. Evap- 
oration is far more rapid in a dry, than in a 
moist atmosphere, and more rapid in a cur- 
rent of air ihan when it is still or stagnant. 
Dry, porous, and thoroughly pulverized soils 
radiate heat from a vastly greater number of 
points than wet aird*. compact soils, and re- 
ceive more abundant depositions of dew. 
Sands are powerful absorbents, and some 
countries depend almost wholly upon this 
►for the support of vegetation. The sandy 
plains of Chili seldom receive any rain ; yet, 
in consequence of their excessive radiation 
of heat and the heavy dews at night, they 
maintain a high fertility. If a soil be suf- 
ficiently permeable to the air, condensation 
may take place below during the day, at the 
same time that the surface may be giving off 
both heat and moisture, which is due to the 
relative degree of heat between the two. 

To the farmer and the gardner, the soil is 
that portion of the earth's surface or crust 
which supports vegetation, or that is suscep- 
tible of cultivation, and is rich or poor ac- 
cordingly as it is well or illy adapted to pro- 
duction. Soils are formed from the decom- 
position and disintegration of rocks, and 
are either from those immediately underly- 
ing, or may have been brought from a dis- 
tance by causes still acting, or that have 



ceased to operate. * * * 

* * * The soil has a vaiied 

composition, according to locality and cir- 
cumstance. The decomposition or disinte- 
gration of an argillaceous rock would natu- 
rally give rise to a soil in which aluminous 
properties would prenouderate. If the soil 
originated from a suicious rock, then it 
would be sandy; if from limestone, we should 
expect it to be calcareous. These and other 
substances, variously intermixed with or- 
ganic matters in different states and stages 
of decomposition, form soils. They owe 
their properties to the distinctive minerals 
from which they are derived. 

These inorganic constituents do not exist 
in the atmosphere, and arc supplied by the 
earth, as they do not grow; and having been 
created once and forever, it follows that, if 
removed, they must be replaced. It does 
not matter how removed, whether in the 
form of grass, grain, milk, flesh, or bone, if 
taken away they are gone, so far as the far- 
mer is concerned. This principle lies at the 
foundation of all successful agriculture, and 
is the fundamental axiom for which Liebig 
and others have so long, so laboriously and 
ably contended. 

It would be as ridiculous for the miner to 
suppose that his exhausted placer would 
yield as much -gold by re-working, as for 
the farmer to think that his exhausted lands 
would be recuperated without the addition 
of the substances extracted from it. 

All the constituents of soil are compounds : 
they are oxydes of some metallic base, the 
organic portions are animal and vegetable 
substances in a decomposing state, complex 
and passing by degrees to simple forms. 
Soils, then, in complexion and composition 
vary. Two soils* originating from the same 
rock may differ widely, in consequence of 
mechanical condition, subsoil, situation, cli- 
mate, and cultivation. But as rocks are the 
same in all parts of the world, so must they 
give rise to a similarity of soil. In one hun- 
dred and forty-six soils analyzed by the geo- 
logical surveyor of Massachusetts, taken 
from every variety • of rock formation, the 
most remarkable uniformity was presented. 
These, again, as compared with forty-eight 
soils from Germany, Holland, Belgium, Hun- 
gary, and Bohemia, offer the same striking 
uniforminty, differing but slightly from 
American soils. (Dana's Muck Manual.) 
These facts would appear to show that there 
is not only a great similarity, but that their 



476 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



composition is independent of the variety 
of rooks which they overlie. Some of the 
most fertile are those formed by deposits, 
and the amount of fertilizing material car- 
ried from one spot to another, or entirely 
lost in the ocean, defies any estimate. 

Drs. Dickeson and Brown estimate the 
annual deposit from the Mississippi river to 
amount to the enormous quantity of 28,188,- 
053,892 1-6 cubic feet of solid matter. 
That amount is independent of the coarse 
sand and gravel transported by the river 
current, which they were unable to esti- 
mate. 

Mr. Leonard Horner estimates that "the 
Rhine carries down every year 1,973,433 
cubic yards of earth, and if this process has 
been going on at the same rate for the last 
two thousand years, and there is no evidence 
that the river has undergone any material 
change during that period, then the Rhine 
must in that time have carried down mate- 
rials sufficient to form a stratum of stone a 
yard thick, extending over an area more 
than thirty-six miles square." 

From the nature of the constituents of 
silt, and the finely comminuted state in 
which it is deposited, we should expect it to be 
fertile; and so long as the deposits continue, 
so long will their richness remain. Such 
soils are among the richest known. The 
low grounds bordering on the Nile, the Mis- 
sissippi, the Rhone, the Danube, the Po, 
the Wolga, Orinoco, &c, are examples, and 
maintain their fertility without apparent di- 
minution. The composition of alluvium de- 
pends upon the geological formations and 
character of the country through which the 
waters pass ; and the nature of the deposit 
again depends upon the current. If the 
stream be sluggish, the particles are much 
finer than if the water be rapid or turbu- 
lent. When the uplands of our country 
have been impoverished by successive crop- 
pings or injudicious tillage, the low grounds 
will resist longer, and continue to be a re- 
source. But the amount of low ground is 
insufficient to supply the requirements of a 
dense population ; hence the necessity of 
fertilizers. Organic manures, those of a 
nitrogenous nature, have been used from 
time immemorial. It is said " that the 
barn-yard yields a panacea for all the far- 
mer's ills." This is not rigorously correct; 
for there are soils which never can be ren- 
dered fertile by the application of barn- 



yard manure, but which may be improved 
by correctives, and the addition c-f organic 
substances. 

[To be Continued^] 



From American Stock Journal. 

Cattle Distemper. 

[This disease is spreading at the North, and 
although the most summary means for extermi- 
nating it, have been adopted by the Massachu- 
setts Legislature, it is feared that it -will not be 
arrested in its progress until great national loss 
shall have resulted from its ravages. We pre- 
sent the reader with the able verterinary sur- 
geon Dr. Dadd's description of the symptoms, 
name, &c, of the disease. — [Ed. So. Pl. 

The Pleuro-Pneumonia Exudative. 

DESCRIPTION AND SYMPTOMS OP THE 
DISEASE. 

The locality of pleuro-pneumonia exuda- 
tive is within the chest, the parts affected 
are the lining membrane of the thoracic 
cavity and the thoracic viscera. The dis- 
ease sometimes commences on the pleural 
membrane which is found on the interior walls 
of the chest and on the surface of the lungs 
— it then occasions much pain, as in com- 
mon pleurisy, and is accompanied by a deep 
seated and painful c^iigh ; as the disease 
progresses the chest becomes the seat of 
exudation of serum and lymph, the walls of 
the chest acquire a coating of lymph which 
undergoes the usual change and becomes 
organized into tough fibrine, and this be- 
comes so firmly united to the pleura, that it 
requires considerable force after death to 
tear it off; not only does it occupy the 
plura-costalis, but is also found on the dia- 
phram. As the water — serum — lymph and 
fibrous tissue accumulate, it gradually com- 
presses the lung, on whichever side the 
foreign materials happen to occur, until the 
lung itself, if unaffected by the disease, is 
forced up into the superior or uper region 
of the chest, and finally the mechanical 
pressure is so great that the lung is forced 
into a solid ball no bigger, in some cases, 
than a man's first, and under such circum- 
stances some persons are led to suppose that 
the lung is not to be found — " all gone." 

It happens occasionally that while one 
side of the chest is filling up with serum, 



I 



18G0.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



477 



<fcc, the lung on the nther side is being 
tilled with exuded lymp, and is gradually 



mi dor* 



.solidification, so that after 



while, the lungs fail to eliminate carbonic 
acid gas from the blood and impart to it 
oxygen, and then the animal dies. 

In some cases the disease first commences 
i a purely pulmonic form affecting the 
substance of the lung and then attacking 
the pleura ; whenever it occurs in what is 
called a " high inflammatory form," it usually 
runs a rapid course and ends in mortifica- 
tion of the lungs ; yet during my visits at 
North Brookfield, I have not seen more 
than two cases of mortification of the 
lungs. 

The disease sometimes occurs in the 

ion-inflammatory form, and in character exu- 

lative, and lingers in the system for months, 

/et during this period it may escape ordina- 

•y observation, and the owner of the animal 

nay declare that there is nothing amiss 

vith the creature. Such was the case with 

young bull, killed a short time ago, and 

fie young cow also, two out of the three 

nimals purchased at Belmont last June. 

Very many of the animals slaughtered 

tnder the auspices of the surgeons employ- 

d by the commissioners, had tumors in 

heir lungs; these tumors consisted of por- 

ions of detached lung, -circumscribed spots, 

n which the disease in its active form ori- 

•inally existed, some of these so called tu- 

lors weighed from one to twenty-four 

we found a tumor, it 

as always adherent to the chest, or rather, 

le lining membrane of the same, and was 

nveloped in a dense fibrous covering or 

mic, by which means nature preserved the 

itegrity of the sound portion of the lung; 

le object in uniting the tumor with the 

ra, is to organize it with arteries and 

3ins, which are thrown out from the pleura, 

that the diseased mass may be absorbed 

7 the blood, and carried out of the system 

7 the excrementitious vessels and organs; 

id it is in this way that nature by the si- 

nt operation of her own forces attempts, 

id finally very often succeeds, in curing 

isease. 

These diseased spots or tumors are de- 
ched from the sound part of the lung by 
hat is called the ulcerative process, and as 
st as ulceration proceeds, the adjacent parts 
e protected by deposits of fibrine, which 
fectually seal up the open air cells and 



blood vessels, so that the tumor — originally 

real king /isstir — immediately escapes when 
the process is completed, and the part is cut 
into. 

Occasionally we find the lung or a portion 
of one or both lobes in a state of hepatiza- 
tion, which signifies liver-like ; there are 
two kinds of hepatization, one is called red, 
the other grey ; on cutting through them 
they feel like liver, and when a portion is 
put into water it sinks. 

SYMPTOMS OF THE DISEASE. 

The old saying is that " in dry times all 
signs fail," so it is with exudative pleuro- 
pneumonia, when it assumes a mild form ; 
when it first ^appeared at Belmont, and af- 
terwards at North Brookfield, it was in the 
acute form, and in spite of all treatment 
run a rapid course ; its symptoms were then 
somewhat uniform — for example, it was ush- 
ered in by a short, dry, husky cough, and 
the animal on being urged to move showed 
symptoms of distress ; the respirations were 
accelerated; the pulse quick and wiry ; the 
animal dull and listless; the bowels consti- 
pated ; the milk decreased in quantity and 
of a yellow tinge, and the appetite is not so 
good as usual. 

Now the disease has assumed a milder 
form, being modified by passing through the 
systems of various herds, consequently the 
" signs fail," yet let the disease be in ever 
so mild a form the creature shows nnthrifti- 
ness, appears dull and has a languid look ; 
the hair in some parts of the body stands 
on end ; the respirations are quickened, as 
well as the pulse, yet the appetite is not im- 
paired, in fact there is no complaint made 
about an animal's appetite except when the 
disease commences in the form of pleurisy, 
in which case very little food is eaten, and 
if the animal be pressed in the spaces be- 
tween the ribs, it shows signs of pain. It 
will generally be found that in the acute 
stage there is considerable tenderness all 
along the spine, and the moment a person's 
hand is placed in that vicinity the affected 
creature will shrink. The horns and ex- 
tremities are alternately hot and cold ; urine 
dark colored and scanty; fasces darker than 
usual. Yet when the disease takes on the 
incipient form, the work of destruction goes 
on in so mild a manner that it eludes detec- 
tion, until auscultation or percussion re- 
veals it. 






4T8 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August? 



AUSCULTATION AND PERCUSSION. 

On applying the ear to the sides of the 
chest, if any uncommon sound be heard, 
such as a bellows murmur, or a strong tubu- 
lar murmur, or a crackling sound, we may 
conclude that the lungs or their respiratory 
passages are diseased ; also should the res- 
piratory murmur be absent, and on striking 
the sides of the chest a dense, almost solid 
sound be heard, then we may infer that the 
lung or lungs, as the case may be, are un- 
dergoing solidification. Let it be borne in 
mind however, that the natural and healthy 
sound should resemble that of the air enter- 
ing into a vast number of minute cells — hav- 
ing, as each cell becomes gradually dilated, 
a soft, smooth, grating or crepitating sound; 
the term Vesicular has been applied to this 
sound, because it is supposed to be produced 
by the entrance of air into the pulmonary 
vesicles, and it is very distinctly heard in 
the case of sound lungs where the walls of 
the chest are thinnest. 

A compressed or solidified lung gives the 
Walls of the bronchial tubes an increased 
power of vibrating sound, hence in such 
cases the ear of the auscultator detects what 
is called tubular respiration. 

When a portion of lung is infiltrated or 
compressed, or when the chest contains 
serum, we get what is called puerile or shrill 
respiration on the side opposite to that affect- 
ed, in fact, whatever is capable of prevent- 
ing the free access of air into the minute 
air-cells of one lung imposes additional labor 
on the other, hence the shrill sound or ex- 
aggeration of the respiratory murmur. 
When effusion into the chest is very great, 
or when the pleura becomes coated with 
lymph or fibrine, or the animal has a thick 
hide, or is very fat, then the respiratory 
murmur is feeble. 

Percussion. — -The application of percus- 
sion (striking various parts of the chest with 
the joints of the fingers) is sometimes of 
great value in detecting resonance or dull- 
ness of any part of the chest, yet when ap- 
plied to the region of the shoulder and 
along the back, which are covered with 
thick muscles, it is apt to fail in detecting 
disease. When we strike the walls of the 
chest, supposing the subject to be free from 
disease, we get a clear sound, but as we ap- 
proach the liver on the right side which 
reaches as far forward as the third or fourth 
rib, from behind, we get dullness. In many 



of the cases which I have had the privilege 
of inspecting at North Brookfield, I have on 
examination after death found the lungs in 
a state of hypertrophy (abnormally enlar- 
ged), and in all such cases the sonind elicited 
by percussion resembled that which would 
arise on striking a boiled pudding contained 
til a bag ; in fact, the lungs when in a state 
of hypertrophy from this disease, ere they 
have lost their integrity of structure) feel 
almost like boiled pudding. 

In pleuro-pneumonia, the lungs are often 
emphysematous ; this gives rise to a tym- 
panic or windy sound, the lung is then un- 
naturally resonant — the extent of the reso- 
nance corresponds to that of the dilatation 
of the air eells; on the other hand, should 
the lung be occupied by a tumor, such as I 
have just described, percussion will elicit 
diminution of clearness, and should the tu- 
mor have an adhesive connection with the 
inner wall of the chest, the dullness will be 
very marked, or rather the absence of son- 
orous sound is complete. 

I have noticed that the autopsies reveal 
little, if any, derangement of other parts or 
organs of the body ; and I have made up 
my mind, after conducting or assisting at 
over one hundred autopsies, that if any other 
organs of the body are affected the case is 
not * pleuro-pneumonia exudative," the ver- 
itable malady imported from- Holland in 
May, 1859. 



Charcoal as a Manure. 

Manures may be beneficial to plants by 
affording carbonic acid gas to their roots, 
Animal and vegetable matters evolve this 
gas while purifying; but we are not aware 
of any manure that absorbs it from the at» 
mosphere, so as to be for that reason bene- 
ficial to vegetation. Lime attracts carbonic 
acid gas from the air rapidly, but combines 
with it so strongly, that it is useless to 
the plant until the carbonate of lime so 
formed is imbibed and elaborated by that 
plant. 

It is to its power of gradually forming 
carbonic acid gas that charcoal partly owes 
its value as a manure. The chemical ope- 
ration of charcoal, when employed for this 
purpose, is by no means so well understood 
as that of most other fertilizing additions to 
the land. That the carbon of the charcoal 
operates so beneficially upon plants, among 
other modes by a gradual combination with 



I860-] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



479 



oxygen, hardly admits of a doubt. Lie- 
big gives the results of a series of experi- 
ments by Lukas on the use of charcoal as 
a manure, which seems to corroborate his 
opinion From the facts which these chem- 
ists, however, adduce, it is evident that the 
beneficial action of charcoal, as a fertilizer, 
depends upon the presence of other sub- 
stances besides carbon. Liebig notes {Or- 
ganic Chcm., p. 62) that "plants thrive 
in powdered charcoal, and may be brought 
to blossom, and bear fruit, if exposed to 
the influence of the rain and the atmos- 
phere. Plants do not, however, attain ma- 
turity under ordinary circumstances in char- 
coal powdej when they are moistened with 
pure distilled water instead of rain or river 
water. Rain water must, therefore, contain 
within it one of the essentials of vegetable 
life ; and it has been shown that this is the: 
presence of a compound containing nitro- 
gen ; the exclusion of which entirely de-| 
prives humus and charcoal of their influ-l 
ence on vegetation." It is ammonia, to 
whose pretence in rain water Professor Lie- 
big thus refers, in whose valuable work (p. 
207) the experiments of Lukas will be 
found. From these we learn that in a di- 
vision of a low hothouse, in the Botanic 
Garden at Munich, a bed was set apart for 
young tropical plants ; but instead of being 
filled with tan, as is usually the case, it was 
filled with powdered charcoal, the large 
pieces of charcoal having been previously 
separated by means of a sieve. The heat; 
Was conducted by means of a tube of white 
iron into a hollow space in the bed, and 
distributed a gentle warmth, sufficient to 
have caused tan to enter into a state of fer- 
mentation. The plants placed in this bed 
of charcoal quickly vegetated arid acquired 
a healthy appearance. As always is the 
case in such beds, the roots in many of the 
plants penetrated through the holes in the 
bottom of the pots, and then spread them-' 
selves out ; but these plants evidently sur- 
passed in vigour and general luxuriance 
plants grown in the common way; l'or ex- 
ample, in tan. 

M. Lukas then gives a list of several of 
the exotic plants upon which charcoal ap- 
pears to have produced the most beneficial 
effects. It appeared also to promote the 
rapid germination of seeds. He then pro- 
ceeded to try the effects of charcoal when 
mixed with vegetable mould, all of which 
answered very well. "The charcoal/' con-, 



tin ues M. Lukas, " used in these experi- 
ments was the dust-like powder of charcoal 
from Kirs and Pines. It was found to have 
most effect wheJi allowed to lie during the 
winter exposed to the action of the air. 
In order to ascertain the effects of different 
kinds of charcoal, experiment* were also 
made upon that obtained from the hard 
woods and peat, and also upon animal char- 
coal ; although I foresaw the probability 
that none of them could answer so well as 
that of Pine wood, both on account of its- 
porosity and the ease with which it is de- 
composed. The action of charcoal consists 
primarily in its preserving the parts of 
plants with which it is in contact, whether 
they be roots, branches, leaves, &c, un- 
changed in their vital power for a long . 
space of time, so that the plant obtains 
time to develop the organs for its further 
support and propagation. There can scarce- 
ly be a doubt, also, that the charcoal un- 
dergoes decomposition ; for, after being 
used for five or six years, it becomes a coaly 
earth. It exercises likewise a favoura- 
ble influence by absoibing and decompos- 
ing the matters excreted by the roots of 
plants, so as to keep the roots free from 
the putrifying substances, which are often 
the cause of the death of the spongioles. 
Every experiment," concludes M. Lukas, 
"was crowned with success, although plants 
belonging to a great many different fami- 
lies were subjected to trial."— {Ibid., p. 21 L) 
Professor J. F. Johnston {Elm. of Ag. 
Chem., p, 142) recognizes the good pro- 
perties of charcoal as " a valuable mixture 
with liquid manure, night-soil, farm-yard 
manure, ainmoniacal liquor, or other rich 
applications to the soil." And as he ob- 
serves in another place, when speaking of 
the fertilizing portions of farm-yard drain- 
age, {Tran*. Jfif/h. ' go* 1846, p. 190,) 
" The only substance at present known, by 
which the separation of all the valunble in- 
gredients from liquid manure can be "fully 
effected, is animal charcoal. A sufficient 
supply of this substance, when intimately 
mixed with the liquid manure, will take 
up nearly the whole of the saline and col- 
ouring matters it holds in solution, will car- 
ry down the substances it holds in suspen- 
sion, and will leave the water nearly pure 
and colourless. Ihe refuse of the prus- 
siate of potash manufactories will have this 
effect, and what remains when ivory-black 
is digested in spirit of salt (muriatic acid) 



480 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



will do still better ; but this kind of char- 
coal is neither cheap nor abundant, and, 
therefore, cannot be recommended for 
general use. The refuse animal charcoal 
of our manufactories is now sold for manure 
at the price of several pounds a ton : 
either those who sell it, or those who use it, 
might render it still more valuable by 
causing fermenting liquid manure to fil- 
ter through it before it is applied to the land. 
" But other kinds of charcoal possess 
this property to a certain extent: wood 
charcoal, reduced to powder, charred saw- 
dust, and charred peat, are all capable of 
being used with advantage in extracting the 
ammoniacal and other salts, which give its 
value to the liquid of our farm yards. Ex- 
periment has shown that when filtered 
through a bed of such charcoal, the liquid 
escapes without colour, and almost without 
taste, while the charred peat or sawdust is 
converted into fertilizing manure. A great 
portiqn of the loss now incurred may be 
prevented by the use of such kinds of 
charcoal ; and the fertilizing substance 
may, through their means, be applied to 
our crops at seasons of the year for which, 
in their liquid form, they are not suited. 
It is even capable itself of yielding slow sup- 
plies of nourishment to plants ) and it is 
said in many cases, even when unmixed, to 
be used with advantage as a top-dressing. 
In moist charcoal the seeds of the gardener 
are found to sprout with remarkable quick- 
ness and certainty, but after they have 
sprouted they do not continue to grow well 
in charcoal alone." — (C. W. Johnson's Mod- 
ern Agricultural Improvements**) — J., in 

Cottage Gardener. 

<■»«•» — 

Remarkable Spring. — In Greene Co., 
Virginia, there is a remarkable natural cu- 
riosity, known as the "Tidal Spring." The 
water issues out of the ground in a bold 
stream, sufficiently strong to turn a grist 
mill, ajnd it continues to flow for fifteen or 
twenty minutes, when the water ceases to 
run, and in two minutes' time not a single 
drop of water is visible In the course of 
an hour or two the water commences flow- 
ing again, and flows twenty or thirty min- 
utes, when it again ceases. In wet weather 
it flows every hour, and in dry weather it 
flows seven or eight times every twenty- 
four hours. 



Grain fed to stock is much better when 
cooked 



Measuring: Land. 

Farmers often desire to lay off small por- 
tions of land for the purpose of experiment- 
ing with manures, crops, etc ; but sometimes 
find difficulty in doing it correctly, for the lack 
of a few simple rules. The following table 
and accompanying explanation, which we copy 
from the New England Farmer, carefully stu- 
died, will make the whole matter perfectly 
clear. 

One Acre contains 160 square rods; 4,840 
square yards; 43,560 square feet. 

One Rod contains 30.25 square yards; 272.25 
square feet. 

One square yard contains nine square feet. 



THE SIDE OF A SQUARE TO CONTAIN. 




feet. 


rods. 


paces 


One acre, 208.71 


12.65 


04 


One-half acre, 147.59 


8.94 


45 


One-third acre, , 120.50 


7.30 


37 


One-fourth acre, 104.36 


6.32 


32 


One-eighth acre, 73.79 


4.47 


25| 





208.71 


feet. 


12.65 rods. 

i ? 

CO 
OS 

104.36. 


52.18. . 
1-16. 


52.18. 


* 

104.36. 



It will be seen by reference to this plan 
that a practice sometimes followed by farmers 
is very erroneous ; if the side of a square con- 
taining one acre measures 208.71 feet, one-half 
that length will not make a square containing 
one-half an acre, but only one fourth an acre, 
and one-third the length of line will inclose a 
square of one ninth an acre, and one-fourth 
the line, squared, will contain one-sixteenth 
an acre, and so on. — The Farm. 



By forgetting injuries, we show ourselves 
superior to them ; he who broods over them is 
their slave. 

Inherited riches cannot purchase ornaments 
for the mind ; these must be acquired by each 
possessor. 

Beauty without honesty is like poison in a 
box of gold. 






I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



481 



An Address 

On the. Opposite Results of Exhausting and 
fertilizing Sj/stevis of Agriculture, Read 
Before the Soutli Carolina Institute, at 
its Fourth Annual Fair, November l%th, 
1852. 

BY EDMUND RUFFIN, ESQ. 
Concluded from page 408 Sou. Planter. 

From this digression to a particular branch, 
I will now return to the general subject, of 
the neglect of rest and manuring crops, for 
land. 

The incessant cultivator does not the less 
rest, and lose the use of his land, by refu- 
sing any cessation of tillage so long as he 
can avoid it. If such cultivators manure so 
abundantly that there is no general decline 
of production, then they do not come under 
my past remarks and censure. If there be 
any such, 1 will oniy say of their mode of 
maintaining fertility, that it is less eifectual 
and more costly, than if aided and substitu- 
ted in part by manuring crops and a judi- 
cious rotation of crops. But as to many 
other planters, who, whether slowly or rapid- 
ly, are certainly impoverishing their lands, 
they will, at some future period, be compell- 
ed to allow a greater proportion of time for 
the land to rest, and to greater disadvantage, 
and less profit, than if allowing regularly 
either one year in three or two in five. Sup- 
pose the land to yield cotton, (or sometimes 
corn,) continuously for thirty, or even forty 
years — or, with much manuring, sixty years. 
In such cases, it is true, there were as many 
crops obtained as the land was kept years 
for tillage. But after the first few years, 



th 



.oducts were d'eclini.io- ; and for the 



ic pr< 

last five or ten years, on the general aver- 
age, they scarcely paid more than the expen- 
ses of cultivation. The crops also suffered 
during the whole time the evils of a want 
of rotation, and the land of want of change 
of condition. At the close, the land must 
be turned out to rest, because manifestly, not 
worth longer cropping. This compelled 
cessation and rest will continue for twenty, 
thirty, or forty years, when the land will be 
again cleared of its second (or perhaps its 
third) growth of trees ; and with this and 
other extra labors, will be again brought 
under continued tillage, to be again, and 
much more speedily, exhausted of its smaller 
recovered amount of productive power. In 
this manner, though at long intervals, more 
31 



than the full proportion of rest, required by 
an improving system of rotation, is given to 
the land,, and enforced by its exhaustion ; 
and the manner is such as to make the least 
return of benefit for the greatest expense 
incurred for the respite of the land from 
cultivation. 

My former engagement in tfouth Carolina, 
and the then especial object of my investi- 
gations and labours, served to make me bet- 
ter acquainted with a large portion of your 
territory than any other as extensive else- 
where. From that acquaintance was derived 
the opinion, which I have since asserted and 
still maintain, that no other as extensive re- 
gion, known to me, possesses half as great 
advantages and resources for agricultural im- 
provements, or more needs the employment of 
these means. The proper and full use of 
your wonderfully abundant, rich and easily 
accessible marl, and the recent shells and 
other marine remains, offer the best princi- 
pal and indispensable means of fertilization, 
and which are available for half your terri- 
tory. Another great resource, and almost 
as much neglected, is presented in your great 
inland swamps, now only wide-spread seed- 
beds of disease, pestilence and death j and 
which, by drainage, with certainty and great 
profit, might be converted into dry fields of 
exuberant fertility. It is true, that existing 
legal obstacles oppose these extensive plans 
for drainage ; but these difficulties might be 
removed by wise legislation, with great ben- 
efit to the interests of all concerned — and 
improvements might be permitted and invi- 
ted which would render these now worthless 
and pestilential swamps as fruitful as the 
celebrated borders of the Vo. 

The draining of the inland swamps of 
rich alluvial soil, together with the general 
application of marl to these and also to the 
now cultivated higher ground, would go 
far to remove the long prevailing unhealthi- 
ncss to which Lower South-Carolina is sub- 
ject, and which is the only important evil 
which is not entirely in the power of the in- 
habitants to remedy. I will not presume to 
say how far this great evil may be lessened 
by these works of industry and improve- 
ment. But, when so much of your country 
consists of low and wet swamp, and of par- 
tially wet, higher lands, and all easy to be 
drained, it does not seem over-sanguine to 
suppose, that, with such drainage and the 
general extension of the also sanitary ope- 
ration of marling and liming, the country 



482 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



would be as much improved in healthiness, 
as in fertility. Such change to greater 
healthiness has been most marked in my 
own country, in the extensively marled 
neighbourhoods, even where there has been 
no considerable draining operations executed 
or required. J"his improvement of health, 
is ascribed by all who have experienced the 
beneficial change, mainly to the sanitary in- 
fluence of the now calcareous soil. 

Your extensive and rich river swamp 
lands offer another great object for improve- 
ment, aud increase of agricultural profit and 
wealth. Even " sandy pine barrens," now 
unfit for tillage, or for any useful production, 
other than the magnificent pine forests which 
cover them, if made calcareous and put un- 
der Bermuda grass, (the curse of tillage 
lands so infested) would be made as valua- 
ble land for pasturage, as the equally barren 
chalk downs of England. 

Your high lands are mostly level, or of 
gently undulating surface, and easy to till, 
and the soils generally well suited to your 
great staple crops, corn and cotton. The 
navigable rivers which pervade Lower South 
Carolina, in th^ir number and character, 
present a remarkable geographical feature, 
as singular as it is valuable. The main ca- 
nals required for extensive drainage of the 
inland swamps, would be so many additions 
to the existing navigable highways. So low 
are the intervening swamp lands, that nearly 
all the deep navigable rivers, might be con- 
nected by canals of level or nearly level 
water ; and in that respect, Lower South- 
Carolina might possess the peculiar facilities 
of Holland for extensive inland navigation. 
These connecting canals, by diverting some 
of the superfluous supply of fresh waters of 
some rivers, to others where it is deficient, 
might perhaps serve to extend greatly the 
present area of tide covered land, capable of 
being flooded for rice culture. If such ca- 
nals, mainly for drainage, but serving also 
for navigation, were made to connect the 
Edisto with the Ashley, the Cooper and the 
Santee, there would be another incidental 
advantage as remarkable as it would be val- 
uable. The excavation of the canals through 
the great swamps, (and certainly between 
those stretching from the Ashley nearly to 
the Santee,) would generally penetrate into 
marl of the richest quality, lying a few feet 
below the surface of the swamps. If duly 
appreciated, this rich calcarious earth, to be 
used as manure, would go far to reimburse 



the costs of the excavation ; and if used for 
lime-burning, would furnish good lime, and 
at one-third of the price of that for which 
South-Carolina has paid and continues to 
pay millions of dollars to the lime-burners of - 
New-England. This voluntary tribute, at 
least, which is one of so many unnecessari- 
ly paid by the South to the North, might be 
ended to the immediate and great profit of 
both the sellers and the buyers of the sub- 
stituted lime, made of the abundant, cheap 
and excellent native material. The buying 
of Northern lime by South-Carolina and 
Georgia, is as unprofitable and as absurd a 
procedure as the usage of importing Nor- 
thern hay. But of these and of many sim- 
ilar things, we of the South have no right 
to blame any but ourselves. All the com- 
modities which we import from the Northern- 
States, and which might be more cheaply 
provided at home, serve indeed to make up 
an enormous amount of annual tribute. But 
this part of our general burden is fairly and 
properly levied by northern enterprise and 
industry upon southern listlessness and indo- 
lence. Very different, however, is the case 
as to the far greater proportion of the gene- 
ral amount of tribute paid by southern to 
northern interests- — from which we have no 
defence, because government induces and 
enforces the payment, by the legislative ma- 
chinery of protecting duties and the indi- 
rect bounty system. But I am straying from 
wy designed subject, the improvement of 
southern agriculture to its governmental and 
political oppression. 

Putting aside all speculative and untried 
subjects and modes of improvement — and 
counting upon nothing more than the pro- 
per use of your calcareous 'manures and ju- 
dicious tillage, and the early results of both 
— and supposing that your country should 
be so benefitted only in the same degree as 
has been the smaH portion of mine already 
marled or limed — the most moderate esti- 
mate of the agricultural values so to be cre- 
ated would now appear to you to be sq great- 
ly exaggerated as to be altogether incredi- 
ble. But however much I would desire to 
avoid the position of a discredited witness, 
I will not be restrained by that fear from 
stating general results, which are notorious 
in Virginia, and to sustain the truth of 
which, thousands of particular facts can be 
adduced. These results, susceptible of clear 
proof, or exhibited by official documents, 
are that thousands of farms have been dou- 



186?).] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



483 



bled or trippled, and some quadrupled in 
production, and the general wealth of their 
proprietors as much increased — the assessed 
values of marled lauds increased by many 
millions of dollars, while those of similar 
lands, not so treated, have continued to de- 
cline as all did before ; and the treasury of 
the commonwealth is already benefitted by 
many thousands of dollars received annually 
from the counties containing these improved 
lands, and derived from them, while the 
revenue from lands of the neighbouring and 
before similar counties, is still decreasing. 

So far, I have spoken as to benefits which 
have already occurred, and which are un- 
questionable, and which have been derived 
from resources and facilities for improve- 
ment not to be compared in amount and 
value with those of South-Carolina. I have 
elsewhere estimated the possible future and 
full fruition of this system of improvement, 
in Lower Virginia only, at five hundred 
millions of dollars of increased pecuniary 
value of capital thereby to be created. The 
full employment of your much greater re- 
sources of this kind, and over as wide a sur- 
face, would not be worth less. Then your 
other great resources, which have been nam- 
ed but not estimated, would be so much 
more in addition. 

But agricultural production and pecuni- 
ary values are not the* only or the greatest 
gains ; and though others rest upon opinion 
only, and arejncapable of being measured, 
their existence and their value are not the 
less acknowledged by all judicious observ- 
ers, in our country most improved in agri- 
cultural production by calcareous manures. 
The improvement of health has been men- 
tioned ; the improvement of economical and 
social habits, morals and refinement, and 
better education for the growing generation, 
have been sure consequences of greatly in- 
creased and enduring agricultural profits ; 
and these moral results will hereafter be in- 
creased, in full proportion to the physical 
and industrial producing causes. Popula- 
tion, though a later effect, is already sensi- 
bly advanced by these agricultural causes. 
The strength, physical, intellectual and 
moral, as well as the wealth and revenue of 
the commonwealth of Virginia, will soon de- 
rive new and great increase from the grow- 
ing improvement of that one and smallest 
of the great divisions of her territory, 
which was the poorest by natural consti.u- 
tion — still more the poorest by long ex- 



hausting tillage — its best population gone, 
Of i^oing away, and the remaining portion 
sinking into apathy and degradation, and 
having no hope left, except that which was 
almost universally entertained of fleeing 
from the ruined country, and renewing the 
like work of destruction on the fertile 
lands of the far west. Terms of reproach 
and contempt, (once not undeserved,) have 
been so long and so freely bestowed on this 
tide-water region of Virginia, and had be- 
come so fixed by use, that it Will be long be- 
fore they will cease to be deemed applica- 
ble; or before many persons who now know 
this region, only by the memory of former 
report, will learn that it is not altogether 
a land of galled and gullied slopes, or broom- 
sedge-covered fields, over whose impoverish- 
ed and dwindling population, indolence and 
malarious disease contend for mastery. 

From these matters, referred to for proof 
or illustration, I return to my main sub- 
ject, more immediately connected with, and 
more likely to be interesting to my aud- 
itors. • 

There is not one of the industrial classes 
of mankind, more estimable for private 
worth and social virtues, than the land- 
holders and cultivators o£ the Southern 
States. With them, unbounded hospitality 
is so universal, that it is not a distinguish- 
ing virtue — and, in truth, this virtue has 
been carried to such excess, as to become 
a vicious tendency. Honourable, high- 
minded, kindly in feeling and action, both 
to neighbours and to strangers — ready to 
sacrifice self-interest for the public weal — 
such are ordinary qualities and characteris- 
tics of southern planters. Many of the 
most intelligent men of this generally in- 
telligent class, are ready enough to accept 
and to apply to themselves and their fellow- 
planters, the name of " land-killers." But 
while thus admitting, or even assuming 
this term of jocose reproach, they have not 
deemed as censurable or injurious, their 
conduct on which this reproach was predi- 
cated. They have regarded their " land- 
killing" policy and practice merely as af- 
fecting their own personal and individual 
interests — and if judged by their continued 
action, they must believe that their inter- 
ests are thereby best promoted. Their er- 
ror, in regard to their own interests, great 
as may be, is incomparably less than the 
mistake as to other and general interests 
not being thus affected. As I have already 



484 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[AtTGtfST 



admitted, individuals may acquire wealth 
by this system of impoverishing culture, 
though the amount of accumulation is still 
i.-iich abated by the attendant waste of fer- 
tility. But with the impoverishment of its 
soil, a country, a people, must necessarily 
and equally be impoverished. Individual 
planters may desert the fields they have ex- 
hausted in South Carolina, and find new 
and fertile lands to exhaust in Alabama. 
And when the like work of waste and deso- 
lation is completed in Alabama, the spoil- 
ers, (whether with or without retaining a 
portion of the spoils,) may still proceed to 
Texas or to California. But South Caro- 
lina and Alabama, must, nevertheless, suf- 
fer and pay the full penalty of all the im- 
poverishment so produced. The people 
who remain to constitute these States re- 
spectively, as communities, are not spared 
one tittle of the enormous evils produced — 
not only those of their own destructive la- 
bours, but of all the like and previous la- 
bours of their fellow citizens and predeces- 
sors who had fled from the, ruin which 
they had helped to produce. And these 
evils to the community and to posterity, 
greater than could be effected by the most 
powerful and malignant foreign enemies of 
any country, are the regular and deliberate 
work of benevolent and intelligent men, of 
worthy citizens, and true lovers of their 
country. 

^ I will not pursue this uninviting theme 

to its end — that lowest depression which 
surely awaits every country and people sub- 
jected to the effects of the " land-killing" 
policy. The actual extent of the progress 
toward that end, throughout the Southern 
States, ought to be sufficiently appalling, 
to induce a thorough change of procedure 
and reformation of the agricultural system 
of the South. 

In addition to all increase of the other 
benefits of agricultural improvement which 
have been cited — pecuniary, social, intellec- 
tual and moral — there would be an equal 
increase of political power, both at home 
and abroad, which at this and the near ap- 
proaching time, would be especially impor- 
tant to the well being and the defence of 
the Southern States, an-d the preservation 
of their yet remaining rights-, and always 
Tital interests. If Virginia, South Caro- 
lina, and the other older slave-holding 
States, had never been reduced in produc. 



tiveness-, but, on the contrary, had been im- 
proved according to their capacity, they 
would have retained nearly all the popula- 
tion they have lost by emigration, and that 
retained population, with its increase, would 
have given them more than a doubled num- 
ber of representatives in the Congress of" 
the United States. This greater strength 
would have afforded abundant legislative 
safeguards against the plunderings and op- 
pressions of tariffs to protect Northern in- 
terests — compromis.es (so-called) to swell 
Northern power — pension and bounty laws 
for the same purposes— and all such acts 
to the injury of the South, effected by the 
greater legislative strength of the now more 
powerful, and to us, the hostile and predatory 
States of the confederacy. Even after Vir- 
ginia, with more than Esau-like fatuity, had 
sacrificed her magnificent north-western ter- 
ritory, which now constitutes five great and 
fertile States, (and a surplus to make, by 
legislative fraud, a large part of t'.e sixth 
State,*) and all of which are now among, 
the most hostile to- the rights of the people 
of the South — if Virginia had merely re- 
tained and improved the fertility of her 
present reduced surface, her people would 
not have removed. Their descendants- 
would now be south of the Ohio, ready and 
able to .maintain the rights of the Southern 
States, instead of a Jarge proportion, as- 
now, serving to swell the numbers, and give 
efficieM power to o^r most malignant ene- 
mies. The loss of both political and mili- 
tary strength, to Virginia and South Caro- 
lina, are not less than all other losses, the 



*A condition made by the 'Government of 
Virginia, in tlie act of cession, to the' United 
States of all her north-western territory, was- 
that this territory sb6uld afterwards be divided 
into not more than rive new States. Five have 
already been carved out of this great doman, 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wiscon- 
sin, and a space of 22,330 square miles re- 
mains, in the new territory of Minnesota, which 
will here-after constitute so much of another 
State, in violation of the act of cession by Vir- 
ginia, an<d of the faith of the present Federal 
Government, and in which space, with all the 
north-western territory, slavery was interdicted 
by the ordinance of 1787, of the Confederation. 
This space of 2:2,330 square miles, which ought 
to have been included in the five anti-slavery 
States already formed, but which will go to con- 
stitute a sixth, is nearly as large as South Caro- 
lina, and larger, by nearly 1000 square miles, 
than the united surfaces of New Hampshire. 
Massachusetts and Connecticut. 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



485 



certain consequences of the impoverish- 
ment of their soil. 

If it were possible that,. for all lower 
• South Carolina, the system of improvement 
could be directed by one mind and will, 
■I much as the operations of any one great 
individual estate, the most magnificent re- 
Milts could be obtained with great and cer- 
tain profit, and in a few years.- Without 
any additional labour or capital, more than 
now possessed, for beginning the improve- 
ment — and with only the subsequent in- 
crease of means which would be supplied 
by the clear profits of the improvements as 
they became productive — most of the lands 
accessible to marl or lime eould be covered 
by these manures in ten years. In twenty 
years from this day, all such lands could be 
thus improved, and, by that time, might 
yield double or tripled general products, 
and would exhibit a proportionally greater 
increase of value as capital. The new clear 
profits of this one great improvement would 
be enough in amount to effect all the prac- 
ticable drainage of inland and river swamps 
in twenty years more. Or, in that addi- 
tional time, the increased revenue of* the 
State treasury, from these new sources only, 
would suffice to construct all the great 
works of drainage, which would be beyond 
the means of individual proprietors. 

In all opinions expressed as to the value 
and effects of the agricultural improvements 
proposed for South Carolina, my data are 
the experienced and unquestionable results 
of like labours in Virginia. The legitimate 
deductions, and the only one for un tired 
operations is that like causes will produce 
like effects in both these different localities 
I cannot conceive any reason, founded on 
existing differences of elimate, soil or sub- 
jects of culture, that can make ealeareous 
manures less efficient, or less profitable, with 
you than with us. Nevertheless, I have 
learned from mere rumour, that in the small 
extension of their use, by new operators, 
which occurred here, there was no general 
and important benefit obtained. And such, I 
must infer, was the conclusion reached by 
nearly all the makers and observers of these 
trials, from the irresistible, though negative 
evidence (which only is before me,) that 
nothing considerable of such improvements, 
or of public notoriety, has been effected in 
latter years. In the absence of all partic- 
ular information of the actual trials, their 
results and the accompanying circumstances, 



of course 1 cannot pretend or be exp< 
to explain the causes of disappointment, 
which must be the general result, as it 
Beeuil that marling has languished, if not 
ceased, in general, alter a few faint effoi 
But I infer that the main and usual cause 
of supposed failure, or of inconsiderable 
benefit, has been the same prevailing: 
practice, before denounced, or incessant, or, 
at least, much too frequent tillage, which 
does not permit the fields to receive and 
retain organic matter from their own 
growths especially. This cause had operated 
on nearly all the trials of marl made previ- 
ous to my service in South Carolina. Of 
all such cases of alleged failure, that I was 
enabled to see and investigate the circum- 
stances, the causes were such as I now sup- 
pose of the still later failures. These cases 
of failure and of disappointment, and the 
known causes, were brought fully to view 
in my Report of the Agricultural Survey ; 
and from the more extended remarks, I will 
quote a short passage, to show my then 
opinion of the facts and the causes of pre- 
vious failures, and my earnest warning 
against the general course pursued. After 
reciting the general facts of failure of pre- 
vious trials of marling, I proceeded in 
these words : u Can any opponent of marl- 
ing desire more full admissions than these ? 
And yet they all serve but to illustrate 
what I have continually striven to impress, 
that icithout vegetable matter to combine 
with, calcareous manures will be of little 
value. But, on the other hand, I have 
heard of no trial of marl on land in proper 
condition, that is, recently and sufficiently 
rested, and thereby provided with vegetable 
matter, in which the effect has not been 
very great on the Jirst crop. And three or 
four of such results only, would be enough 
to explain the causes, (of failure in all 
other cases,) and to prevent all inferences 
unfavourable to marling, if from a hundred 
failures of early efforts under reverse cir- 
cumstances." Then followed particular 
statements of two different experiments, 
carefully made that year, (and the circum- 
stances noted at my request,) of marling 



* There is, however, one important case 
known to me, of at least partial exception to 
the general rule of failure in marling in South 
Carolina, in the very extensive and also pro- 
fitable labours and improvements of Gov. 
Hammond, on his estate bordering on the Sa- 
vannah. 



486 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



on new land, and, therefore, not exhausted 
of its valuable matter, and in which the 
products (which were cotton) were nearly 
doubled in the first year of the applica- 
tion. 

Here, then, even in the few lines quoted 
from the much more full precepts to the 
same purport, there is full evidence of my 
having stated, in advance of all later trials, 
the sure cause of failure ; and in the warn- 
ing against that cause, I may claim to .have 
predicted all later failures of like occur- 
rence. And if there had been thousands 
of failures, preceded and accompanied by 
very frequent and exhausting tillage, all 
of them would but the more strongly con- 
firm my long entertained and often express- 
ed opinions and instructions as to the ac- 
tion of calcareous manures; and all such 
cases would not detract a tittle from the 
alleged available values. When urging the 
use of lime, I have never omitted to state 
that it gave no fertility of itself, or by di- 
rect action; and that vegetable matter in 
sufficient quantity, and in conjunction, was 
essential to the beneficial operation of cal- 
careous manures. The required organic 
matter may be supplied mainly in the 
growth of the land to be improved. But it 
must be supplied in some form, and in suf- 
ficient quantity — and, also, should be, in 
part, present in advance of the use of cal- 
careous manures, to secure their best early 
effects. 

Planters of South Carolina — I have of- 
fered to you in plain and unvarnish- 
ed language, and, possibly, it may be 
in ungracious and distasteful terms, the 
last advice and admonition that I can 
expect to utter to you, or to any similar au- 
dience. My burden of years, and infirmi- 
ties much greater than even suited to my 
age, admonish me that my labours may 
soon close. I would deem it a reward of 
more value to me than will be the short 
remainder of my life, if you and your fel- 
low-labourers, even at this late time, (in 
reference to myself,) would heed my words, 
and fully profit by them. It is but little 
that a private individual can do, to warrant 
to a great commonwealth or community, the 
beneficial results predicted upon stated pre- 
mises and conditions. But so perfect is 
my confidence in the general results I have 
predicted, that I would willingly hazard 
upon the issue all that I have, in property, 
reputation, and even life itself. For illus- 



tration, and in mercantile or business lan- 
guage — if I possessed hundreds of millions 
of dollars, to, that full amount, for a pre- 
mium of ten per cent., I would insure as 
much clear profit to South Carolina, to be 
gained by conforming to my directions, for 
saving and increasing the fertility of her 
soil. As, however, it is impossible for me 
to offer any such guaranty, and for me either" 
to incur risk or loss, or to derive pecuniary 
gain from the results, I can only offer my 
earnest verbal assurances of your available 
gain, as great and as sure to be obtained by 
your pursuing a proper course of improve- 
ment, as will be the growing loss and even- 
tual ruin of your country, and humiliation 
of its people, if the long existing system of 
exhausting culture is not abandoned. It is 
not merely my feeble voice and my question- 
able personal testimony, but also thousands 
of unquestionable facts, and the sure ex- 
perience and realized profits of thousands 
of farmers, which offer to your acceptance 
the highest agricultural prosperity in ex- 
change for present decline and approaching 
exhaustion of the remaining fertility of 
your land. Choose, and choose quickly ! 
And remember, as my last warning, that 
your decision will be between your purchas- 
ing, at equal rates of price, either wealth 
and general prosperity, of value exceeding 
all present power of computation, or ruin, 
destitution, and the lowest degradation to 
which the country of a free and noble mind- 
ed people can possibly be subjected. 



From the Valley Farmer. 

Remarks on Liebig's "Letters on Mod- 
ern Agriculture," &c. 

By Robert Peter, M.D., Chemist to Geo- 
logical Survey of Kentucky, &c. 

"Letters on Modern Agriculture, by Baron Von 
Liebig. Edited by John Blyth, M.D., Profes- 
sor Chemistry, Queen's College, Cork; with 
addenda, by a Practical Agriculturist, &c. 
New York, John Wiley, 1859/l2mo.pp. 275." 

One of the objects of the present work 
of Liebig, is to show that the great efforts 
made by the modern agriculturists, to secure 
large crops and great present profit from 
their land, re'sult (because of the present 
imperfect system of culture) in a propor- 
tionably more rapid spoiliation of the soil. 

Were it true, according to the recent 
views of some of the leading chemists and 
agriculturists, that Nitrogen, which is present 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



487 



in immense quantity in the atmosphere, is 
the essential element of the soil and of 
manure which insured the production of 
crops; or that humus, which is also com 
posed of abundant atmospheric elements, 
viz.: carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, is, with 
nitrogen, an all-sufficient food for vegetables, 
and that the earthy materials of the soil 
acted merely mechanically or physically, in 
furnishing a soft penetrable medium in 
which their ramified roots could diffuse 
themselves, and by which moisture, air, 
gasses, heat, and the decomposed remains of 
plants and animals (humus) are absorbed 
and retained for their use: — then, a system 
of husbandry which kept the soil sufficiently 
drained, and in a light condition favorable 
for the penetration of the tender rootlets 
and the absorption of airs and vapors, and 
gave it a proper amount of humus, would 
preserve forever the fertility of the land, 
however large and numerous the crops re- 
moved from it. On such a theory as this, 
modern husbandry in many places seems to 
be based. But the facts are widely different, 
and Liebig's peculiar merit, in his writings, 
is in forcibly exhibiting what had already 
been demonstrated by Carl Sprengel par- 
ticularly, that the earthy materials, or min- 
eral substances of the soil, do not act me- 
chanically only, but that, on the contrary, 
certain mineral substances, fortunately for 
us, contained in all soils, and, strange as it 
may appear, in most rocks also, on the sur- 
face of the globe, although generally in 
minute quantities, were just as essential to 
vegetable growth as the atmospheric ele- 
ments above mentioned. 

These mineral substances, of which we 
may mention potash, lime, magnesia, phos- 
phates, sulphates, &c, &c, although re- 
quired in smaller quantities than the atmos- 
pheric elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
and nitrogen, are just as essential to the 
/perfection of organic structure as these, and 
not the smallest microscopic plant or animal, 
or the minutest cell of tissue could exist 
without a certain definite quantity of them. 

These mineral elements, so called (found 
in the most fertile soil only in relatively 
small quantities), are, therefore, continually 
taken up by growing vegetables, and re- 
moved in crops, in quantities greater in pro- 
portion to the larger growth. They pass, in 
their food, into the bodies of animals, and 
are discharged in their excretions; aud thus, 
when vegetable products or animals fed on 



them are taken from the land, more or less 
of these essential elements are alienated 
from the soil, and it becomes gradually de- 
teriorated, however fine may have been the 
tilth — however careful the husbandry; un- 
til, in the end, the earth refuses to reward 
the labor spent on it, and is hopelessly 
sterile. 

Ancient as well as modern agriculture, 
up to a very recent period, has taken little 
or no account of these facts. It is true that 
land, when the crops were continually re- 
moved from it, was observed to become more 
and more difficult to cultivate, and less and 
less able to repay by rich harvests the labor 
applied to it. Countries which produced 
and exported grain, tobacco, &c, abundantly, 
became sterile wastes in Europe, Africa, and 
even on our new continent : but the real 
cause of this serious injury was not fully- 
studied or understood. .Some virtue of the 
soil had departed — the land was sick — but 
no great physician told the impoverished 
farmer how to restore his exhausted fields. 
Yet something might have been learned by 
noting well the fact — that where the land 
was in the hands of small holders, who ex- 
ported nothing, but consumed the products 
of their little farms on the soil which pro- 
duced them, and thus unwittingly restored 
to it the mineral elements which had been 
taken from it by the crops — this exhaustion 
did not take place in a proportionate de- 
gree. In this manner the productiveness 
of the densely populated land in China is 
preserved, where the excretions of men 
and animals are regularly preserved, made 
articles of commerce, and restored to the 
soil : — because these excretions, solid and 
fluid, really contain these mineral elements 
which had been taken from the land in the 
vegetable or animal products which consti- 
tuted their food. 

But in countries where a large extent of 
territory is annually laid under contribution 
to supply great communities in large cities, 
and but a small proportion of the excreta 
is ever carried back again to the soil, most 
of it being lost in the drains and sewers, 
this deterioration of the soil is very evident 
and lamentable. Thus was it that ancient 
Rome made sterile the Campana and large 
tracts of fertile land in Sardinia, Sicily, and 
on the coast of Africa ; and thus, in modern 
times, when railroad and canal facilities 
cause agricultural products to be carried 
thousands of miles from the place where 



488 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



they were grown, the essential elements of 
the soil are drained at a rapid rate from an 
enormous extent of country; and by modern 
improvements in agriculture, which aid in 
the production of large crops, the deterio- 
ration of the soil proceeds more quickly 
than it has ever done. 

Klippart ; Corresponding Secretary of the 
Ohio State Board of Agriculture, &c, &c, 
laments in his recently published work, 
" The Wheat Plant," as follows: "Several 
years ago I became aware of the fact, that 
wheat, the staple crop of Ohio, was annu- 
ally diminishing in its yield per acre ; that 
in less than fifty years the average product 
was reduced from thirty to less than fifteen 
bushels per acre !" 

Numerous other writers, some quoted in 
the work of Liebig before us, bear the same 
melancholy testimony even in relation to the 
land in some of our youngest States — we 
will not take space at present to copy it. 

During the examination of -soils from 
various parts of Kentucky, by the writer, 
in the prosecution of the Geological Survey 
of that State, a comparison was made, by 
minute chemical analyses, between the com- 
position of the virgin soil and that of some 
of the same locality which had been culti- 
vated for a number of years ; and in seventy- 
one cases out of seventy-nine the soil of the 
old field showed a marked diminution in the 
essential mineral elements. 

Practical or empirical husbandry has 
been endeavoring, since the commencement 
of history, to solve the great problem, How 
to maintain the fertility of the soil in culture. 
Thousands of experiments in farm opera- 
tions and manures have been made; and, 
to a certain extent, this empirical process 
has been crowned with success. Experi- 
ence early taughi the fanner to rest his 
fields ; to give them a fallow ; during which 
some of the valuable elements locked up in 
the harder particles of the soil were set free 
by slow disintegration, and the crop of 
weeds, by collecting from its depths the 
scanty nutritive materials, enriched the sur- 
face somewhat by their decay, so that larger 
crops of the useful products could subse- 
quently be obtained. He learned by ex- 
perience also to send from his farm only the 
more concentrated and valuable of its pro- 
ducts ; to raise green crops, with which to 
feed stock; to cultivate the deep-rooted 
clover, which would bring to the surface the 
valuable ingredients of the sub-soil; to 



carefully preserve all his straw for the litter 
of his animals, and return to the land all of 
the fertilizing materials he could thus ac- 
cumulate as barn-yard manure. But even, 
this, like the fallow system, whilst appa- 
rently keeping up the fertility of the soil, 
gradually and certainly exhausts it, if, after 
all, the crops of grain, or the animals of the - 
farm or their products are -annually exported 
from it. The land is starved to death in 
the end by this system, whether crops be 
carried off from it without the application 
to it of any manures — or whether abundance 
of manures, produced on the farm itself, is 
annually applied to it to keep up its surface 
fertility : the difference being only one of 
time. 

The writer was amused, a short time 
since, by noticing in the Cosmos of the 
Abbe Moigno, under the uphonious name of 
Autophagic, a new method, proposed to the 
French Academy of Science, by M. Le 
Docteur Anselmier, of retarding death by 
starvation, and of making it less painful; 
which consisted in opening the veins of the 
starving individual, and feeding him regu- 
larly on his own blood. Just such starva- 
tion is the cultivation of soil by means of 
manures made on the land itself, whilst 
valuable products, containing a large amount 
of the essential mineral elements are an- 
nually exported from it. 

When this system is so far improved as, 
in Flemish husbandry, to return to the land 
not only the manure from the barn-yard, 
but also that from the dwelling-house, the 
process of deterioration is greatly retarded. 
But experience has finally taught the far- 
mer, who sells off from his farm his pro- 
ducts, the advantage of applying to the soil 
fertilizing materials from other localities, 
such as lime, marl, sea-side sand, shells, sea- 
weed, fish, wood-ashes, plaster of Paris, 
nitrate of soda, nitre, salts of ammonia, 
bone-dust or super-phosphates, guano, &c^| 
and by the judicious use of such articles as 
these, especially of the two latter, aided by 
improved processes of agriculture, England 
has, at a great expense, it is true, main- 
tained the fertility of her fields, and even 
greatly increased her crops within the last 
fifty or sixty years. But besides the im- 
mense amount of bones, Chili saltpetre 
(nitrate of soda) &c, &c, imported into 
England for this purpose, we are told (Cos- 
mos, January 13, 1860) that 5000 tons of 
guano' are sold in England per week ; at a 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



489 



medium price of 300 fames per ton — 
nearly sixty dollars. 

By experiments in the field with these 
substances, as well as by many others on a 
smaller scale, by distinguished farmers, 
chemists, and physiologists, it has been fully 
demonstrated, that the elements found in 
the vegetable composition, whether the%t- 
mospheric elements or those of a fixed na- 
ture belonging to the soil, (although more 
of some is required than of others), are all 
equally necessary and essential, and that in 
the absence of any one of them all the 
others become useless, and, as it were, par- 
alyzed in their action, until the missing ele- 
ment is supplied. Hence, the apparent 
* great efficiency in some cases, of lime, plas- 
ter, bone-dust, ashes, &c, to some soils, and 
their seeming inertness in Others. And, 
hence, the capability of production of a soil 
is limited by the quantity of the smallest 
proportion of any of its essential elements, 
however rich it may be in the remainder of 
these important substances. 

Common sense has long since appreciated 
a fact, about the priority of the discovery 
of which some of the French savans have 
been making their reclamations in the 
Academic des Sciences, viz., that the fertili- 
ty of a soil depends not only on the mere 
presence in it of the nutritive elements, but 
also on their being in an available condition. 
Modern science has been busy within the 
last fifty years in ascertaining what these 
essential elements are, and modern husban- 
dry has aided much in showing how they 
are to be brought to that soluble condition, 
in which only they are available for the 
rapid growth of crops. It is found that 
many substances promote the growth of 
plants in two ways : First, By giving to 
them, elements necessary to their composi- 
tion • and, Second, By acting as solvents to 
other elements which, without their aid, 
•eould not be available for vegetable nourish- 
ment. We may particularize water, car- 
bonic acid, salts of ammonia, nitrates, hu- 
mus, &c, all of which aid in the solution of 
the earthy phosphates, the carbonates of 
lime and magnesia, the oxides of iron and 
manganese, silica, &c. This is one reason 
why so high a value has been attached to 
ammonia and its salts as fertilizers, because 
they not only yield the essential nitrogen, 
but render the phosphates and other earthy 
materials soluble in water. But most of the 
manures which contain ammonia, such as 



guano, urate, poudrctte, &c, also contain 
the phosphates and other essential materials. 
Indeed, were the supply of good guano un- 
limited, and the too great waste of the alka- 
lies of the soil avoided, we need not fear 
the total exhaustion of the soil ; for, at the 
worst, the profits of agriculture would be 
the excess of the price of the products of 
the land over the cost of the guano neces- 
sary to their production, added to that of 
the usual cost of labor and the interest of 
capital, &c. But the stores of this valuable 
fertilizer (which is usually deficient in no 
essential but potash) are becoming rapidly 
exhausted, and the political economist who 
is convinced that the ordinary system of 
agriculture is one of spoliation of the land, 
must look forward to some other expedient 
than this to keep up its fertility, on which 
the very foundations of society are sup- 
ported. • 

As no element in nature is ever destroyed, 
or really lost, it might seem, theoretically, 
that this might be a very easy matter. The 
atmospheric elements, carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, and nitrogen are, by known physi- 
cal laws, constantly present everywhere on 
the surface of the earth, and need but little 
care on the part of the agriculturist, except 
to bring them to their most available condi- 
tion ; but the fixed elements — the mineral 
elements so called — which are carried off 
from the soil in the crops, are usually accu- 
mulated in and around cities, in the vaults 
and sewers, or drained off in the streams, to 
be finally lost in the ocean ; and immense 
difficulties surround any effectual project for 
their restoration to the land. Yet the eye 
of the philosopher and the teachings of ex- 
perience show us, that to some plan of this 
kind must we come in the end if we would 
avoid starvation ; and it remains for practi- 
cal men fully impressed with this great ne- 
cessity, to show how it is to be done. 

A very great prejudice exists in the pub- 
lic mind, in this country especially, against 
the use of such fertilizers on the garden or 
farm ; but a little reflection would show that 
this is unreasonable. It has been in a great 
measure overcome in many parts of Europe, 
in some countries of which the contents of 
the privies are amongst the perquisites of 
the sovereigns; and in China (we quote 
from the work before us) " the estimation in 
which it [human excrement] is held is so 
great, that everybody knows the amount of 
excrements voided per man in a day, month, 



490 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



or year ; and a Chinese would regard as a 
gross breach of manners the departure from 
his house of a guest who neglects to let him 
have that advantage to which he deems 
himself justly entitled in return for his hos- 
pitality. The value of the excrements of 
five people is estimated at two Teu per day, 
which makes 2000 Cash* per annum, or 
about twenty hectolitres (440 gallons), at a 
price of seven florins." The Chinese, ac-, 
customed to look on such matters only as 
objects of commerce and utility, never think 
of them as nuisances, and take no pains to 
disinfect them ; but in this country any plan 
which contemplates the restoration to the 
land of the lost mineral elements by the pre- 
servation and use of these excretions, must 
include some effectual mode of deodoriza- 
tion. Perhaps, by the use of such antisep- 
tics as the simple and cheap one lately em- 
ployed with much success in the "hospitals 
of Paris, viz : an intimate mixture of two 
to four per cent, of coal tar with ground 
plaster of Paris, the prejudice may be over- 
come, and a regular commencement be made 
of a system of commerce by which the 
lands which have been impoverished to feed 
the cities, shall be renovated by that, to re- 
move which now constitutes one of their 
greatest embarrassments. This commence- 
ment ought to be made before the land be- 
comes so much impoverished that its reno- 
vation would cost more than the price of 
new land at a convenient distance from the 
city. The ocean has already swallowed up 
too much of the richness of the soil, on 
which it has only given us back a scanty 
interest, in the shape of guano, &c. ; but in 
view of the great popular prejudice in this 
relation, and the present low price of new 
land, such a plan is not likely to become 
general or effectual until a dense population 
and a scarcity of new land on our broad con- 
tinent shall oblige the people to study the 
true philosophy of agriculture. 

In forcibly presenting views of this na- 
ture to the agriculturists of Europe and of 
the world, in the little work before us, Lie- 
big has performed the office of a faithful 
monitor : whether his advice will be regard- 
ed remains to be seen. Like most of his 
writings, this contains, unfortunately, cer- 
tain crudities and dogmatical statements, 
which will excite controversy and tend to 



* 100 Cash are equal to about 4^d. — about 
eight cents. 



excite prejudice against it, which will some- 
what diminish its utility. We may men- 
tion : First, His emphatic assertion, that 
vegetable food is not in solution, when it is 
absorbed by plants, but that the mineral 
elements are absorbed, particle by particle, 
by the rootlets in immediate contact with 
tnem in the soil. Now, if this were true, 
we cannot see the reason why plants cannot 
grow almost as well during a drought as 
when the ground is moistened by genial 
rains. Because, the soil, by its great power 
of absorption, can remove dissolved phos- 
phates and other materials from water which 
is filtered through it — is no more a reason 
why it may not give up some of these ab- 
sorbed substances to water containing car-" 
bonic acid, ammonia, or humus, than the 
rapid absorption by it of the heat of the sun 
or the moisture of the atmosphere should 
lead us to conclude that heat and moisture 
could not pass off from it again. We have 
no space for an argument on this topic; but 
we knoiv, from actual experiment on no less 
than 375 different soils, treated by prolonged 
digestion, at the summer temperature, in 
water containing carbonic acid, that not only 
did the soil, in every instance, give up nota- 
ble quantities of its essential elements to 
solvent, (which is similar in nature to at- 
mospheric water penetrating the soil), but 
that in some cases, as in virgin prairie soil, 
rich in humus, and containing but a small 
proportion of alumina, the quantity of solu- 
ble matters extracted by the carbonated wa- 
ter, weighed after it was dried at the boil- 
ing heat of water, amounted to nearly 2 per 
cent, of the soil (1.7 and 1.6 per cent.); 
whilst in few cases was it as little as the 
tenth of one per cent, of the weight of the 
soil. And that the extract contains, it is 
true, much carbonates of lime and magne- 
sia, but also -much phosphates, sulphates, 
alkalies, silica, organic matters, &c. To as- 
sert, then, as Liebig does, positively, in the 
work in hand, that water does not dissolve 
out the essential elements of the soil ; that 
the drainage water does not contain any no- 
table quantities of them ; that land plants 
differ from water plants, because they do not 
take their nourishment in the state of solu- 
tion, &c, is in our humble opinion, to travel 
not a little out of the record. 

The tendency of this work, like that of 
all the writings of this author, is to good 
and towards improvement. It will excite 
controversy, as they all have done; but the 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



491 



collision of ideas, and the experiments insti- 
tuted with a view to sustain or upset the pe- 
culiar views of the controversialists, may 
end in the establishment of truth in the 
theory, and improvement in the practice, of 
agrieulture. In this country we have less 
to hope for in this respect than in Europe, 
in # one sense, because new lands are so cheap; 
but more, in another sense, because our 
farming population is generally more en- 
lightened, and more open to conviction "and 
improvement than the husbandmen of the 
old countries; but even here a great reform 
is necessary, and the better education of our 
youths, who are destined for the profession 
of agriculture, is loudly called for. It is 
indeed a great political want, as on the pro- 
ductiveness of the soil intimately depends 
the prosperity of the nation. At present it 
is rare to find a farmer who, by his educa- 
tion, is competent to read and understand 
the works of Liebig and of similar authors 
on agricultural chemistry — although it is 
now clearly demonstrable that by the teach- 
ings of modern science, aided by enlight- 
ened practical experience, must come all 
real improvements in the theory of agricul- 
ture. 

Let us hope that States, societies and 
other communities, will take hold of this 
energetically, and that the farmer be in- 
duced to undergo some other training for 
his useful profession, besides the ordinary 
mechanical one. 



John Walton's Farm. 

" Hadn't you better subscribe for it f' 

" I tell you, no. I haint got the money 
to spare; and if I had, I haint got the time 
to waste over newspapers," said Eben Saw- 
yer, with some emphasis. 

"But j'ou will gain much information 
from it in the course of a year, sir," pursued 
John Walton. 

" I tell you I don't want it." 

" Well, what do you say, Mr. Grummet ? 
Shan't I have your name ?" 

"No, sir!" This was spoken so flatly 
and bluntly, that Walton said no more, but 
folded up the prospectus of a periodical 
which he had with him, and then turned 
away. 

Eben Sawyer and Ben Grummet were 
two old farmers — that is, old at the busi- 
ness, though they had only reached the 
middle age of life; and after their young 



neighbor had gone, they expressed their 
opinion concerning hirn. 

"He'll never make a farmer!" said Saw- 
yer, with a shake of the head. " He spends 
too much time over them papers and books 
of his'n. He's a leetle mite above farmin', 
in my opinion." 

"Them's my sentiments," responded Grum- 
met. "I tell you, Eben, the man that thinks 
to make a livin' on a farm in this country, 
has got to work for it." 

At this juncture, Sam Bancroft came 
past. He was another old native of the 
district. • 

" We was just talkin' about young Wal- 
ton," said Sawyer. 

" I've just come from there," replied 
Sam. 

"He's been borin' me to sign for a paper; 
but he couldn't come it !" 

" Ha, ha ! — so he bored us. He's gettin' 
a leetle too high for a farmer." 

" He's rippin' his barn-floor up !" said 
Bancroft. 

" Rippin' the floor up !" repeated Grum- 
met. " Why, Mr. Amsden had the whole 
floor put down new only three years ago." 

"The stable-floor, I mean," pursued Ban- 
croft. " He's got a carpenter up from the 
village; and his two hired men are helpin'." 

" Whew ! I opine he'll make a farmer !" 

And so they all opined — with a reserva- 
tion. In short, there was something highly 
ridiculous in the thought of»a man's think- 
ing to be a farmer and a student at the 
same time ; and all sorts of jests were dis- 
charged over it. 

John Walton was a young man — some 
five-and-twenty; and though he had been 
born in the neighborhood, yet much of his 
life had been spent in other portions of the 
country. His parents both died when he 
was quite young, and his father's farm pass- 
ed into the hands of a Mr. Amsden. But 
now John had married, and he meant to be 
a farmer; and his thoughts naturally turned 
to the old homestead. He found Amsden 
willing to sell, and he bought — paying five 
hundred pounds down, and giving a note 
and mortgage for five hundred, which had 
been cashed by Mr. Piddon. 

This farming district was upon a broad 
ridge of land, which had been cleared for a 
great many years; and though they were 
the handsomest and smoothest looking farms 
in the parish, yet they were by no means the 
best. The summit of the ridge was crown- 



49: 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



ed by a ledge of granite, and the soil, over 
the whole broad swell, was more or less wet 
and cold. This was particularly the case 
with John Walton's farm, some portions of 
it being wholly unfit for cultivation. There 
was one field of over twenty acres which 
was never fit for ploughing. The soil was 
so wet and heavy that it had never been 
worked to any advantage; yet there was 
some good land upon it, and Mr. Amsden 
had gained fair crops while he lived there. 

Ben Grummet had a curiosity to see what 
was going on in Walton's barn, so he drop- 
ped in there. He found that the whole of 
the floor, where the cattle stood, had been 
torn up, and that they were digging a wide 
deep trench, the whole length of the tie-up. 

" What is all this for ?" asked Ben. 

" Why," returned Walton, who was busy 
in superintending the work, and also in work- 
ing himself, "I am having a place fixed 
here for making manure. I mean to fill 
this trench up with good muck, and thus 
save the liquids which have heretofore been 
lost. I think, by proper management, I 
can get full double the quantity of manure 
which others have got on this place*" 

" Do ye ?" said G-rummet, sarcastically. 

" Yes," resumed the young man. " It is 
a fact that the liquid manures, could they 
be saved, would fully equal the solids, both 
in bulk and value; and when combined 
with well-rotted muck, and some other arti- 
cles which shatt take up and retain all the 
more volatile parts, I feel sure that they will 
afford more fertilizing powers and properties 
than the solid manures can." 

" You don't say so ! Where d'ye larn all 
that?" 

" Partly from reading, and partly from 
observation," answered John, smiling at his 
good neighbor's open sarcasm. 

" I don't s'pose it costs anything to do all 
this?" 

" Oh> y es ? ^ w ^l cos t me considerable be- 
fore I get through." 

" Yes : I should think 'twould !" 

"I say!" he cried, as he met Sawyer 
•shortly afterwards — "John Walton's about 
as nigh bein' crazy as a man can be !" 

"Eh!-ycrazy, Ben?" 

" Oh, ffe's got his head full of all sorts of 
nonsense. He's got his stable-floor all torn 
away, and a trench dug there big enough to 
hold more'n twenty cart-loads of dirt." 

" But what in nature's he goin' to do ?" 

" Why, he's goin' to save the liquids ; as 



he calls 'em ! And he's goin' to put in 
somethin' to take up the — the — vol — volun- 
tary parts." 

" Voluntary parts! What's them, Ben?" 

"It was vol somethin'. But I don't know. 
I wouldn't ask him. I s'pose he just used 
the outlandish word so's to get me to ask 
him what it meant — an' then he'd show, off 
his larnin.'. But I want so green." 

"I wonder if he thinks he's a comin' here 
to larn us old farmers how to work?" said 
Sawyer, rather indignantly. 

" He thinks so," returned Grummet. 

" Then he'll find out his mistake," added 
the other. "You mark my words, Ben — 
he'll be flat on his back afore two years is 
out!" 

And these were not the only ones who 
looked for the same thing. The idea of a 
man's coming in there with any such new- 
fangled notions was absurd. 

Autumn came, and after John Walton 
had mowed over his twenty-acre field — some 
of 1ms coldest and stiffest land — getting 
hardly hay enough to pay for the labor, he 
set men at work digging deep trenches all 
over it. He had two dug lengthwise, run- 
ning up and down the slope; and then he 
dug quite a number running across these. 
They were quite deep and broad, and into 
them he tumbled nearly all the stones that 
could be found in the fields. 

" A pooty expensive way of gettin' rid o' 
rocks," remarked Grummet. 

" It's a better place for them than on the 
surface, isn't it ?" returned Walton, with a 
smile. 

"Perhaps. But what on earth are ye 
doin'itfor?" 

" Why, I'm going to see if under-drain- 
ing won't improve the land." 

" Under-draining I What's that ?" 

" It is simply drawing off the water from 
the surface. This land is cold and wet; 
but if I can get the water to drain off 
among these rocks, the sun may warm the 
surface, and give me a good piece of soil 
here." 

But : t looked very foolish to Ben Grum- 
met. He believed that "what was the na- 
tur of the soil couldn't be altered." 

" That's a cur'us contrivance," said Sam 
Bancroft. He and Ben Grummet had been 
at work for Walton at hauling muck. He 
alluded to a large vat at the back of the 
house, into which ran a spout from the sink. 
This vat was capable of holding several 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



493 



cart-loads of stuff, and was already half 
full. 

"That's a compost vat," explained Wal- 
ton, who had overheard the remark. " All 
the slops from the house, the soap-suds, and 
such stuff, which most people waste, I save 
by this means, and turn to good account; 
and instead of throwing away refuse matter, 
I put it in here, and let it rot and ferment, 
and make manure." . 

" But what's this charcoal dust for ?" 

"It answers two purposes, though by only 
one office. It takes up the ammonia and 
other volatile matter, thus holding them 
for fertilizing agents, and at the same time 
prevents the disagreeable effluvia which 
would otherwise arise from such a ferment- 
ing mass." 

"That all sounds very well," remarked 
Ben, after Walton had left them ; " but, let 
me tell you, it dorit pay I He'd better let 
such fandangles alone, if he ever expects to 
make a livin' at farrnin'." 

Before the ground froze up, W r alton threw 
out most of the muck behind his stable, 
which had become well saturated, and filled 
the trench up anew. 

The old farmers had a great many apple 
trees, and made a great deal of cider ; but 
the fruit was of an inferior quality. When 
spring came, Walton went to some of his 
neighbors, and asked them to go in with 
him, and send for some good scions to en- 
graft upon their apple trees. He explained 
to them just the plan he had formed for his 
own orchard. He had engaged a. competent 
man to come and do the work of grafting, 
and, while they were about it, it would be 
cheaper to get grafts enough for the whole 
neighborhood. 

It was of no use. The old orchards were 
just such as their fathers had, and they 
were good enough. So Walton went at it 
alone. He had his trees all pruned and 
dressed, and nearly all of them grafted to 
such fruit as he thought would thrive best 
and sell best. 

A little while later, and Ben Grummet 
had occasion to open his eyes. He found 
that John Walton had contrived to have a 
hundred and forty full loads of manure, all 
of which had been made within the year. 
However, he finally shook his head, and 
said, " Wait. We'll see if it's good for 
anything." 

A little while later, and the grass began 
to spring up on the twenty-acre lot as it had 



never sprung up before. The two acres, 
Which had been ploughed, and harrowed up 
light and fine, bore the best crop of corn 
that was grown in the whole county, and all 
the manure put upon it was some which had 
been manufactured. 

And so the time went on, and John Wal- 
ton was continually studying how to improve 
his farm. At the expiration of a few years- 
the new scions had grown large and strong. 
in his orchard, and began to bear fruit. 
He had taken care of his trees, and they 
Were about ready to return him interest for 
the labor. 

"Good gracious 1" ejaculated Eben Saw- 
yer, as Ben Grummet and Sam Bancroft 
came into his house one cool autumn even- 
ing, and the three filled their mugs with 
new cider : " have you heard about John 
Walton's apples?" 

"I knew there was a man up to look at 
'em," returned Ben ; " but I ain't heard no 
more." 

" Well, I was there, and heeid the whole 
on't,— so I know, — I never Would 'ave 
thought it. An orchard turn out like 
that !" 

" But how much was it V 1 

"Why, WaHon was offered— cash right 
down — a hundred pounds for the apples he's- 
got on hand, and he tells me that he sent 
nearly fifty pounds' worth of early fruit off 
a month or more ago." 

It was wonderful— *-m ore than wonderful I 
But they had to believe it. 

"And look at that twenty-acre field," said 
Bancroft. "Ten years ago it wouldn't hard- 
ly pay for mowin'; now look at it. Think 
o' the corn and wheat he's gained there ; 
and this year he cut more'n forty tons of 
good hay from it l" 

"But that ain't half," interposed Sawyer, 
" Look at the stock he keeps; and see what 
prices he gets for his cows and oxen. Why 
he tells me he's cleared over four hundred 
pounds this year on his stock." 

At this moment Mr. Walton came in. 
He had grown older, and was somewhat 
stouter than when he first became ■ farmer, 
and his neighbors had ceased to question his 
capacity, and had come to honor and respect 
him. 

"We was talkin' about you, Mr. Walton," 
said Sawyer. 

"Ah t" returned John, as he took a seat 
by the 'fire. "I hope you found nothing bad 
to say of me?" 



494 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



"Not a bit of it. We was talkin' about 
the wonderful improvements you've made 
on the old place, and of the money you 
make." 

"And do you think it wonderful ?" 

"But ain't it?" 

" Well," replied Walton, " I don't know 
about that; but I'll tell you what I do know. 
I know there is no class of people in the 
world who may study the arts and sciences 
to better advantage than farmers; and yet. 



Clarke McDugal, William Colvin, David 
Dayermond, and James Higginbotham, a 
committee to superintend the shearing and 
weighing of the fleeces, and also to examine 
his stock of horses and cattle. 

The committee, in fulfillment of their 
commission, reported to the meeting : "That 
they had examined General Goe's flock of 
Spanish Marino Sheep, and were of the 
opinion, that they could not be surpassed, if 
equalled, in Western Pennsylvania. Below 



I am sorry to say, there. is no class, as a < will be found the weight of the fleeces of a 
class, occupying the same social position, j part of his flock: Of Ewes, 29 fleeces 



who read and study less; of course there 
are many honorable exceptions. Farming 
is a science— one of the most deep and 
intricate — and he must be a man of more 
than ordinary capacity who can master it all. 
But farmers must not be afraid of books ; 
they won't, if they are wise, follow every 
advice which experimentalists give ; but 
they may study, and reason, and experiment 
for themselves. So I have done, and so I 
mean to do." 

"He's right!" remarked Ben Grummet, 
after Walton had gone. " What fools we 
was that we didn't go into that graftin' ope- 
ration !" 

* And that under-draining" added Ban- 
croft. 

"And that muck and compost arrange- 
ment," suggested Sawyer. 

" Well," said Ben, with a serious face : 
" it isn't too late how. They say, it's never 
too late to learn y and I'm sure it hadn't 
ought to be too late to commence to improve 
alter a body has learned." 

" True as a book !" added Bancroft. 

"Good evening!" 



Good evening!" 



[New York Observer. 



Sheep-Shearing in Pennsylvania. 

The annual public shearing of the flock 
of pure bred Merino Sheep of General John 
8. Goe, was held at his residence, 4f miles 
east of Brownsville, Fayette county, Penn- 
sylvania, on Thursday the 31st of May, in 
the presence of a large number of wool- 
growers and other citizens. The meeting 
organized by electing George E. Hogg 
President, and H. W. Goddis and Jacob 
Woolf Secretaries. 

The President appointed Levy Colvin, 
John Hess, James Kwing, Major Clarke 
Brading, Isaac Wiggins, John Conwell, 



were washed and weighed, ranging from 
5 lbs. to 7 lbs. 12 ozs., and averaging 6 lbs. 
3 ozs. ; and of Ewes, unwashed, 44 fleeces 
were weighed, ranging from 7 lbs. to 10 lbs. 
13 ozs., averaging 8 lbs. 7£ ozs. 

" The unwashed fleeces of three Rams were 
tested and weighed, respectively 13 lbs. 
5 ozs., 12 lbs. 6 ozs., and 13 lbs. 3 ozs., their 
ages being one year old or less." 

The committee further reported, "That 
General Goe's stock of Horses is very fine, 
and has been selected and bred with great 
care, and consists of the celebrated horse 
' Rush Messenger/ and Messenger, Mam- 
brino, Bashaw, Morgan and Blackhawk, 
mares and colts. 

" His short horn Durham cattle are all 
thoroughbred, (among which is his Bull 
Conqueror,) and worthy the attention of 
stock raisers." 

In short : " Your committee are unani- 
mously of the opinion that General Goe is 
entitled to the thanks of the community for 
his great exertions in procuring and breed- 
ing the very valuable assortment of stock 
which he now has on his farm." * * * 



A Wife's Influence on her Husband's 
Fortune. 

A woman has her husband's fortune in her 
power, because she may, or may not, as ehe 
pleases, conform to his circumstances. This 
is her first duty, and it ought to be her pride. 
No passion for luxury or display ought, for a 
moment, to tempt her to deviate in the least 
degree from this line of conduct. She will 
find her responsibility in it. Any other course 
is wretchedness itself, and inevitably leads to 
ruin. Nothing can be more miserable than 
the struggle to keep up appearance. If it 
could succeed, as it never can, it would cost 
more than it is worth ; its failure involves the 
deepest mortification. Some of the sublimest 
exhibitions of human virtue have been pre- 
cipitated suddenly from wealth and splendor 
to absolute want. 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



495 



Then a man's fortunes are, in a manner, 
in the hands of his wife, inasmuch as his own 
power of Exertions depends on her. His mo- 
ral strength is inconceivably increased by her 
sympathy, her counsel, her aid. She can aid 
him immensely by relieving him of every 
care which she is capable of taking upon her- 
self. His own employments are usually such 
as to require his whole mind. A good wife 
will never suffer her husband's attention to be 
distracted by details, to which her own talents 
are adequate. If she be prompted by true 
affection and good sense, she will perceive 
when his spirits are borne down and over- 
whelmed. She, of all human beings, can best 
minister to its needs ; for the sick soul, her 
nursing is quite as sovereign, as it is for cor- 
poreal ills. If it be weary, in her assiduity it 
finds repose and refreshment. If it be har- 
rassed, and worn to a morbid irritability, her 
gentle tones steal over it with a soothing more 
potent than the most exquisite music. If 
every enterprise be dead, and hope itself al- 
most extinguished, her patience^and fortitude 
have the power to kindle them in the heart, 
and .he again. goes forth to renew the encoun- 
ter with the toils and troubles of life. 

Lynchburg Republican. 



The Steam Press. 

In the course of his eloquent address at the 
Tract Meeting, Dr. Fuller said: "Who can 
measure the power of the press? An ounce 
of lead moulded into a bullet, and put into a 
Minie rifle, with a few grains of powder be- 
neath it, will do its errand sufficiently upon a 
man two miles distant, if it encounter no ob- 
stacle ; but that ounce of lead made into types 
and put into one of Hoe's lightning printing- 
presses, will go thousands of miles, and do its 
errand effectively, not on one man merely, but 
on millions, and that, though oceans, rivers 
and mountains may intervene. A steam print- 
ing-press I Did you ever go down into one of 
the spacious vaults beneath your side-walks, 
and watch the monsters ? I feel something 
like awe in looking at them. I feel like tak- 
ing off my hat to the huge machine. It seems 
to me like one of Ezekiel's -living creatures, 
with the hand of a man, and the sound of 
many waters, and the spirit of the living crea- 
ture in the wheels. 

" It asks no nourishment, knows no weari- 
ness. How it strips itself to its work, and 
toils on with a strength that mocks to scorn 
the might of the giant, and with a clamor as 
if it would shiver to pieces every substance in 
its grasp. And yet, with a delicacy and pre- 
cision unattainable by human muscles, it re- 
ceives a fabric so delicate that a rude touch 
would rend it, and imprints upon it, in a 
twinkling of an eye, that which cost hours to 
compose. It flings off sheets to entertain, in- 
struct, regenerate, and bless the earth. None 



of us have yet begun to appreciate the influ- 
ence of the press as an agent for the diffusion 
of knowledge, whether it be in volumes, pamph- 
lets, or above all, through the daily newspa- 
per, that moral institution which has revolu- 
tionized not only the literary but the commer- 
cial and political world. It would be an un- 
heard of delinquency, did not the Church of 
God employ this mighty agency. 

Ktw York Chronivle. 



Grape Culture. 

[We extract from the Whig the subjoined arti- 
cle to which we invite the attention of our 
readers. 

The cultivation of the grape is attracting in- 
creased attention in almost every part of our 
country, and appears likely to .become an im- 
portant branch of the industrial pursuits of our 
rural population. But, let those who entertain 
the idea of embarking in the business extensive- 
ly, be careful to inform themselves of the pecu- 
liarities of climate, soil, elevation and exposure 
which are necessary prerequisites for the suc- 
cessful cultivation of the vine. 

" We know," says Lieut. Maury, " how pow- 
erfully -the presence of abundant moisture in the 
atmosphere affects the flavour of our delicate 
fruits: at certain stages of the crop, a few days 
of rainy weather will destroy the flavor of the 
strawberry, the peach, &c. ; and we know that 
the grape requires sunshine and dry air to per- 
fect its secretions. 

"The finest grapes in the world are grown in 
the valley of the Caspian Sea, where Humboldt 
tells us the air is so pure that the most finely 
polished steel may be exposed in the open air 
for days and days without having its lustre 
tarnished. This is but another expression for a 
dew-pint, or a dry atmosphere. There the evap- 
oration and precipitation as in our own valley ef 
the great Salt Lake, are exactly equal. 

"Though there may be here and there under 
the mountains of Georgia, the Carolinas, Virgi- 
nia, Tennessee, &c, small districts adapted to 
the production of wine these charts (alluding to 
his charts of the winds and currents of the sea) 
indicate that there is on this continent a large 
district, the climate — for I know nothing of soils 
— of which is admirably adapted to the culture 
of the grape. That climate is in North-Wes- 
tern Texas and the regions thereabout."] 

" A report has recently been made by Mr. 
Erskine, the British Secretary of Legation 
at Washington, to the proper office in Lon- 



49G 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



don, respecting the capacity of this country 
to produce wine. Mr. Erskine has collect- 
ed some valuable statistics and reliable in- 
i' u-nmtion on this subject since his sojourn 
in this country, which he has transmitted to 
the Foreign Office, and which have been pub- 
lished in the English journal. 

For this report, says the New Orleans 
Crescent, it appears that wines were made 
in this country, in the territory which now 
comprises the States of Indiana and Mis- 
souri, as long ago as the latter part of the 
last century. It -was a cheap red wine, pal- 
atable to the taste, but not enough so to su- 
persede the wines of France and Germany. 
It was only about the year 1830 that the 
Catawba, a native American grape, first 
came into notice, and began to be used and 
cultivated regularly for the making of native 
wine. The Catawba was found growing wild 
near Washington City, resembling the fox 
grape somewhat, and producing a wine 
which, though disagreeable at first, gradual- 
ly grows upon the taste, until it is preferred 
by those who habitually use it to the best 
brands of foreign importation. 

The climate best adapted to the growth of 
the Catawba grape is the dry climate west 
of the Alleghanies, removed from the mois- 
ture of the sea coast. In the neighborhood 
of Cincinnati, and all along the parallel of 
latitude through Indiana, Illinois and Wis- 
consin, the Catawba grape flourishes, and is 
easily produced. It is generally believed 
that Nich Longworth, the great wine-king 
of Cincinnati, monopolises the culture of 
the Catawba grape in that region, but this 
is a mistake. On all the hills surrounding 
Cincinnati, both on the Kentucky and the 
Ohio sides wherever there is a Southern ex- 
posure, may be found vineyards belonging 
to industrious Germans and Swiss, who un- 
derstand the culture of the grape and the 
manufacture of wine, and who derive a good 
profit from their labor in this branch of in- 
dustry. 

" But it is not alone in the neighborhood 
of Cincinnati that the Catawba is cultivated. 
Besides the three thousand acres that are 
under cultivation there, it is estimated that 
there are thousands of acres devoted to this 
purpose in Indiana, in Missouri and Illinois, 
and in Georgia and the two Carolinas. This 
refers only to those places in which the Ca- 
tawba grape is regularly raised as a orop. 
Of course there are also thousands of acres 
in the different States appropriated to the 



culture of the grape and the manufacture of 
native wine, by people who use it only for 
domestic consumption, and never enter the 
market to sell it. The total production of 
wine at the present time is estimated to be 
two millions of gallons annually — and the 
amount is increasing every year. The cen- 
sus which is to be taken the present year 
will show, we doubt not, a greater compara- 
tive increase in the product of this particu- 
lar branch of industry, within the last de- 
cade, than any other in the country. 

The State of Missouri alone has an area 
suitable for grape culture larger than the 
wine-growing districts of France. In Ken- 
tucky and Tennessee, in Middle and Wes- 
tern Virginia, in Western Texas, and in 
California, the vine grows in great perfec- 
tion, producing an abundance of good pala- 
table wine. In short, there is scarcely any 
section of the. Union below the fortieth par- 
allel of latitude in which domestic wine may 
not be made, and sold at a profit by people 
who understand the culture. 

" The Catawba wine is made and sold in 
Cincinnati and St. Louis by wholesale at 
about one dollar a bottle. There are many 
who prefer it* to genuine champagne. Eve- 
rybody prefers it to the imitation bogus 
champagne which is manufactured in New 
York. But there are other grapes besides 
the Catawba to which our climate and soil 
are adapted, and we see no reason why we 
may not produce within our own limits al- 
most every variety of wine that the popular 
taste njay demand. The Germans in Wes- 
tern Texas, we understand, are making a 
red wine, much resembling clarat, and very 
palatable. We may at least manufacture 
all the varieties of red and white wines that 
are made in Europe, depending upon im- 
portation for our Ports and Madeiras alone. 

" The people of this country pay a higher 
price for wines t than any other people on 
earth, because there is a heavy duty on them 
in addition to the original cost and the cost 
of importation. If we made oar wines at 
home, as we easily can, we would not only 
get them cheaper, but have a guarantee of 
their genuineness. Besides this, every body 
knows that in countries where wine is plenti- 
ful and cheap there is less consumption of 
those strong, fiery liquors, manufactured out 
of all sorts of poisonous drugs, which arc 
the fruitful causes of so much crime and 
distress. It is therefore in the interest of 
mortality as well as economy and comfort, 



18G0.] 



Til i; SOUTH BSBN PLANTER. 



197 



that we should encourage the production of 
nativo wine. Certainly. a land so blessed aa 

GUI'S is, with every variety of soil and cli- 
mate, and of so magnificent extent, need not 
long depend upon foreign countries for our 

supplv of wines — and it would not surprise 
us if, before the end of the present eentury, 
we not only made all that is necessary for 
our own consumption, but — reversing the 
current of trade — became exporters of the 
article instead of importers." 



For the Southern Planter. 

Drilled and Broadcast Seeding Compared. 

The advantages of drilled over broadcast 
sown wheat have been so often discussed, 
and enjoined upon us small farmers, that it 
seems scarcely possible to present anything 
new in relation to the subject. Even man- 
ufacturers, in their advertisements, urge 
upon us the great importance of using a 
machine instead of adhering with obstinate 
pertinacity to the primitive custom of scat- 
tering indiscriminately with the hand. Fsom 
whatever source such admonitions may pro- 
ceed, whether those who offer them are ac- 
tuated by the noble incentive of doing good, 
or prompted by the desire of making money, 
we should receive them thanklully if cal- 
culated to render us any service. The de- 
positing of grain in drills I consider to be a 
step towards agricultural improvement as 
far in advance as any which has been taken 
in modern times by innovation upon anti- 
quated practices. Perhaps J ascribe too 
much importance to the mere mechanical 
deposition of the seed ; but trifling as such 
an operation may appear, I conceive it to 
be, and will endeavor to show, that it is, a 
matter of no little u oment. I know that 
some persons are wont to regard with indiffer- 
ence the particular mode of operation which 
may be pursued. " So the seed are put in 
the ground," say they, " no matter how — 
why, what difference does it make V But, 
lightly aa they may esteem the difference, it 
is, nevertheless, material. Both the regu 
larity with which the seed are distributed, 
and the important saving which is effected 
in their use, are, obviously, considerations 
of themselves, irrespective of all others, suf- 
ficient to induce the adoption of the drill. 
But, besides these, there are other reasons 
in its favor which I consider deserving of 
consideration. 

The first indication bv which the farmer 
32 



forma an opiooiou of his future crop, alter 

the seed are planted or sown, is to be able 
in determine whether Of nol he has a "good 
stand." He is anxious to know what pro- 
portion of the seed sown has taken root 

and "come up." hi planted crops he can 

satisfy himself without much difficulty, but 

in sown crops he can only form a vague con- 
jecture. A certainty in regard to the lat- 
ter is the great desideratum. That method 
then which is most favorable to the uniform 
and cotemporaneous germination of all the 
seed sown, is the one that should be adopted 
by every farmer who has his own interest at 
heart. When we sow five pecks of seed 
upon an acre of ground, we want every grain 
to take root and Spring up. 

When seed are arranged in drills they 
arc nil covered at a uniform depth beneath 
the surface; when scattered, and afterwards 
harrowed or plowed in, some are buried too 
deep, a portion not deep enough, and others 
not at all. The former method not only in- 
sures the simultaneous germination of the 
seed, but a certainty that a good stand 
can be thereby effected. Just the reverse 
is true with respect to the latter ; the seed 
being buried at different depths, spring up 
irregularly and at different times, while 
those that are not sufficiently covered with 
earth will either not spring up, or, if they 
do, will produce sickly and imperfect plants. 
We have only to consider the atmospheric 
changes constantly taking place at the sur- 
face of the earth, and within a given depth 
of soil, in order to be convinced of the pre- 
eminence of drilled over sown seed. The 
effects of these changes upon the germina- 
tion of seed vary with their depth. beneath 
the surface. There is a certain depth to 
deposit the seed that possesses every require- 
ment to perfect a speedy and healthy ger- 
mination. The evaporation which is con- 
stantly going on at the surface of the earthv 
through solar influences, combined with the 
effects of the winds, causes a thin stratum 
of soil immediately at the surface to be al- 
most totally destitute of moisture, while the 
humidity of the substratum is constantly 
ascending, in obedience to the law of capil- 
lary attraction to restore that which is re- 
moved from above, thus maintaining in 
genial condition — the requisite degrees of 
temperature and dampness — at the proper 
depth, while it replaces the watery vapour 
exhaled, and is in its turn evaporated from 
the surface. If we descend a little further 



498 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



into the stratum which immediately under- 
lies this more genial layer, we reach one that 
is comparatively cold and repulsive. Now, 
if these three layers, which exist in all or- 
dinary soils, do really possess the peculiari- 
ties attributed to them, then will they serve 
as data upon which to institute a correct 
comparison of the relative merits of the 
two modes of seeding, and enable us to ar- 
rive at an incontestable conclusion. 

First. Let us consider to what extent this 
top stratum is adapted to promote germina- 
tion. 

If heat and moisture are as absolutely ne- 
cessary to the germination of the seed, as 
light and air are indispensable to the growth 
and development of the' plant after germi- 
nation, the disturbance of the relative pro- 
portions of these two elements by the un- 
due predominance of heat, and the conse- 
quent displacement of moisture from near 
the surface, plainly demonstrates the neces- 
sity of descending to a lower depth of soil, 
to secure such a modification of the degree 
of heat as will admit the presence of the 
requisite amount of moisture without, at the 
same time excluding the necessary action 
of light and air in the work of development 
after the germination of the seed and the 
■springing up of the plant. Too near the 
surface the seed will not only fail to germi- 
nate, but by exposure under such unfavora- 
ble circumstances will generally lose their 
vitality. True, the seasonable and abun- 
dant fall of rain may so restore the equili- 
brium of these fcrces as sometimes to pro- 
mote the early germination of seed even un- 
der the most unfavorable depth of covering, 
but in the absence of continued rains, the 
absorption of heat and the evaporation of 
moisture proceed ; the conditions favorable 
to the deep radication in the soil, and growth 
of the young plant are removed j its health- 
ful development is at once arrested ; and it 
is destined to a sickly existence, or to wilt 
and die under the withering influence of 
solar heat. 

Although not the next in order, we will 
in the second place attempt to show in what 
manner the third layer influences germina- 
tion. At this depth of soil it is not often 
prevented, but is only .retarded. Moisture 
exists, it may be, in abundance, but it is so 
far removed from the surface that the tem- 
perature of the soil is too low to supply the 
most favorable conditions of germination. 
The seed are not only slow in sprouting, but 



the young shoot having to struggle up 
through such a mass of overlying soil, its 
appearance at the surface is long delayed, 
and it has for a length of time to forego the 
advantages of light, heat and air, so neces- 
sary to the development and early maturity 
of the plant, when once firmly rooted in the 
soil. «. We say early, maturity of the plant, 
because we wish distinctly to particularize 
the want of that as one of the greatest 
evils of deep seeding. • In proof of this we 
have only to.citp a single case — an extreme 
one we admit — but possessing similar condi- 
tions, it will serve the purpose of a striking 
illustration of the truth of the objection to 
deep covering on account of its influence 
on the tardy coming up and late ripening 
of the crop. There are few who have not 
had occasion to mark the interval of time 
ensuing between the first and last coming 
up of soicn small grain on cold, sour land. 
My oat crop, this year, was sown on cold, 
craw-fish land. The interval that elapsed 
between the first and last coming up of the 
seerj was of such duration that I despaired 
of obtaining .anything like a stand, and 
scolded the overseer for sowing them too 
thin. Walking over the field sometime 
after I was surprised to find the ground lite- 
rally covered with plants. Those seed that 
came up last comprised by fc\r the greater 
portion of those sown, and the consequence 
was, when I came to harvest the crop, the 
smaller portion was dead ripe, while the 
balance was only in the milk state. 

We come now, thirdly, to the layer inter- 
vening between the two already described. 
This stratum, by its proximity to the heated 
surface above, and t' e cool damp layer un- 
derlying it, fulfills every condition towards 
the perfect and speedy germination of the 
seed, the vigorous maintenance of the young 
plant, and the maximum yield of the crop. 
The excess of moisture from beneath, and 
the overdose of heat above are happily coun- 
ter-balanced — the two extremes harmonized. 
Thus furnishing to the intermediate layer, 
exactly in the proper proportions, every at- 
tribute that characterizes a genial soil. In 
this layer, then, it is evident it should be 
the aim of every farmer to deposit his seed. 
The Drill will enable him to accomplish the 
object. I trust I have not clothed the sub- 
ject with undue importance, bat that he who 
adopts it will have just occasion to unite with 
me in recommending it for the great bene- 
fits attending its use. 






THE SOITTIIKKN PLANTER. 



499 



In connection with this subject, permit 
me, before I conclude, tc flfcy a lew words in 
relation to the objections frequently urged 
by us small farmers against the purchase of 
labor-saving implements. The most of us 
are staggered at the bare mention of invest- 
in-- a hundred dollars or go in the purchase 
of a machine ; and rather than thus dispose 
of so much of our bard earned savings, we 
♦ire content to plod along in the same old 
sluggish, slovenly traok of our *• illustrious 
ancestors." The wonder is, that those of 
us who entertain such narrow-minded no- 
tions do not still hitch our plows to the 
horse's tail for the sake of saving the ex- 
pense incurred in furnishing him with gear. 
It never seems to enter the brain of some 
of us that by spending money, especially in 
procurfng machines, we might possibly 
make money. A thought propelled upon 
the swift wings of an electric flash could 
mot beat a conviction to this effect into such 
microscopic brains. Although many of us 
possess land peculiarly adapted to the use 
of the Drib 1 , and seed every year of our 
lives in small grain, an -area extensive enough 
to justify its use, yet, rather than extract 
from the corners of our old "chlsts" a hundred 
dollars of idle money to expend in the pur- 
chase of a -useful machine, whieh would re- 
pay us with double compound interest for 
the investment, we seem to rest satisfied with 
B practice that incurs an annual loss by the 
"want, more than equal i~j amount to the cost 
of the "best machines. Until we can be di- 
vested of such narrow-minded notions, and 
follow wp the improvements which agricul- 
ture, as an art, is constantly -developing, and 
IS still profitably susceptibloof, ^ve may always 
expect to be singing that -nine old monoto- 
nous so*)g of M hard times." 

*€huckatuck." 



» — •»•»- 



Meteorology. 

• Dca- ami heir frost. — When a mass of 
moist air is brought in contact with a cold 
body, its vapor is condensed into Water aWd 
deposited in minute globules on the cooled 
surface, which constitute dew. If the tem- 
perature of the surface is below the freez- 
ing point, the globules of water will be fro- 
zen into minute crystals of ice, which con- 
stitute hoar frosts For a long time the na- 
ture of these phenomena was entirely mis- 
conceived ; the effect was put for the cause, 
the dew being regarded as producing the 



chill which accompanies Its formation, in- 
••stcad of the reverse. i>r. YYclls, of Lon- 
don, born in Smith Carolina, was the firs: 
who gave the subject a scientific investiga- 
tion, and, by a series of ingenious, accurate, 
and conclusive experiments, furnished a de- 
finite explanation of all the phenomena. 
They are simply duo to the cold produced 
IB different, bodies by radiation. As we 
have seen in our essays In previous Kepofts 
of the Patent Office, the earth is constantly 
radiating heat into ■celestial space, and is 
constantly receiving it from the sun during 
the continuance of that body above the ho- 
rizon. As long as the heat from the sun 
exceeds that radiated into space, the tem- 
perature of the surface of the earth and 
tlrat of the air in contact with it continues 
to increase ; but when the two are equal, 
the temperature remains stationary for a 
short time, and then begins to decline as the 
heat of the sun, on account of the obliquity 
of the rays, becomes less than the radiation 
into space. The maximum of heat gene- 
rally takes place between 2 and 8 o'clock in 
the afternoon, and the cooling from this 
point goes on until near sunrise of the next 
morning. As soon as the sun descends be- 
low the horizon, the cooling of the surface 
of the earth takes place more rapidly if the 
sky be elear, the air in contact with grass 
and other substances which arc cooled by 
this radiation, will deposit its moisture in a 
manner analogous to that of the deposition 
of water on a surface of .a metallic vessel 
containing a cold liquid. Although the at- 
mosphere may contain the same amount of 
vapor, yet the quantity of dew deposited 
during different nights, in differ 
and on different substances, is very different. 
It is evident that, all things being equal, it 
must depend upon the quantity of moisture, 
since if the air were dry no deposition 
could take place; and, indeed, it bits been 
remarked that ou some parte of the plains 
west of the Mississippi dew is never ob 
ed. It must also depend upon the elcarnes.s 
Of the sky ; lor, if the heavens be covered 
with a cloud the radiant heat from the earth 
will not puss off into celestial space, but will 
I be partly absorbed by the cloud and radiated 
jbaek to the earth. This is not a mere hy- 
pothesis, but has been proved by direct ex- 
, periment The author of this article, while 
I at Princeton, some years ago, placed a ther- 
j mo-electric apparatus in the bottom of a 
( tube provided with a conical reflector, and 



»00 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[AtTGtJSIf 



thus formed, if the expression may be al- 
lowed, a thermal telescope, with which the 
heat of a cloud of the apparent size of the 
moon was readily perceptible. When this 
instrument was directed first to the clear 
sky in the vicinity of a cloud, and then im- 
mediately after to the cloud itself, the nee- 
dle of the galvanometer attached to the 
thermo-electric pile in the tube always de- 
viated several degrees. At first sight it 
might appear, from this experiment, that 
the heat of the cloud was greater than that 
of the transparent air in which it was float- 
ing, but this was not necessarily the case j 
the rays of heat from the apparatus, when 
it was directed into the clear sky, passed off 
into celestial space, while, when the instru- 
ment was directed to the cloud, they were 
absorbed and radiated back. It is probable, 
however, that the lower surface of the cloud 
is really a little warmer than the air in which 
it is floating from the radiation of heat by 
the earth, while the upper surface is proba- 
bly colder on account of the uncompensated 
radiation into space. But, be this as it may, 
the counter radiation of the clouds prevents 
the cooling down of the bodies at the sur- 
face of the earth sufficient for the deposition 
of dew, or at least to allow of the formation 
of a copious quantity. A haziness of the 
atmosphere, and it is probable a large amount 
of invisible vapor will retard the radiation, 
and hence a still, cloudless night, without a 
deposition of dew is considered a sign of 
rain. The amount of deposition of dew will 
also depend upon the stillness of the atmos- 
phere ; for, if a brisk wind be blowing at 
the time, the different strata of air will be 
mingled together, and that which rests upon 
the surface of the ground will be so quickly 
displaced as not to have time to cool down 
sufficiently to produce the deposition. 

Again, the deposition will be more co- 
pious on bodies the surfaces of which are 
most cooled by the radiation. It is well 
known that different substances have differ- 
ent radiating powers. The following table 
from Becquerel exhibits the proportional 
tendency of different substances to promote 
the deposition of dew. The figures do not 
represent the relative emissive power, but 
the combined effects of emission and con- 
duction : 



'J. Lamp black, 

2. Grasses, 

3. Silicious sand, 



100 
103 
103 



4. Leaves of the elm and the poplar, 101 

5. Poplar sawdt&t, - - 99 

6. Tarnish, 97 

7. Glass, - - 93 

8. Vegetable earth, - - 92 

Polished metals are, of all substances, the 
worst radiators j they reflect the rays of heat 
as they do those of light, and it would ap- 
pear that by internal reflection the escape 
of heat is prevented from the capacity of 
the metal. In order that the surface of a 
body should cool down to the lowest degree, 
it is necessary that it should be a good ra- 
diator and a bad conductor, particularly if 
it be in a large mass and uninsulated. Thus 
a surface of a mass of metal coated with 
lamp black, though it radiates heat freely, 
will not be as much cooled under a clear 
sky as a surface of glass, since the heat lost 
at the surface is almost immediately supplied 
by conduction from within. If, however, 
a very small quantity of metal, such as gold 
leaf, be suspended by fine threads, the dew 
wiW be deposited, because the heat which is- 
radiated is not supplied by. conduction from 
any other source, and hence the tempera- 
ture will sink to a low degree. 

M. Melloni has, within a few years past f 
repeated the experiment of "Wells, establish- 
ed the correctness of his conclusions, and' 
added some particulars of interest. He 
found that the apparent temperature of the 
grass, which in some cases was 8° to 10° 
lower than that of the air at the height of 3 
to 4 feet, was not entirely due to the actual 
cooling of the air to that degree, but to the 
radiation and cooling of the thermometer 
itself, the glass bulb of which is a powerful 
radiator. To obviate this source of error 
in estimating the temperature he placed the 
bulbs of his thermometer in a small conical 
envelope of polished metal of about the 
size of an ordinary sewing thimble. This 
prevented a radiation, and, by contact with 
the air, indicated its true temperature. He 
found, with thermometers thus guarded, that 
the solid body was in no case cooled down 
more than 2° below the temperature of the 
surrounding air, and that the amount of ra- 
diation was nearly the same at all tempera- 
tures. The explanation, therefore, of the 
great cold of; the air between the blades of 
grass is as follows : By the radiation of the 
heat, the grass is at first cooled two degrees- 
lower than the air at the surface of the 
earth, and next the thin stratum of ak 



1*860-] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



501 



which mi media' cly surrounds the grass is 
cooled by contact to the frame degree. It 
then sinks down and another portion of air 
comes in contact with the blade of grass, 
and is in its turn cooled to the same extent, 
and soon until all the air between the blades 
is two degrees lower than that of the air 
farther up. The radiation, however, con- 
tinues, and a stratum of air from the mass 
already cooled two degrees more, which 
sinks down as before, and so on until the air 
between the blades is cooled to 4° below its 
normal condition ; and in this way the pro- 
cess may be continued until the temperature 
desceuds to 8° or 10° below that of the stra- 
tum of air a few feet above. In this way 
we can readily explain the small amount of 
dew deposited on the tops of trees, since the 
air, as soon as it is cooled, sinks down to- 
ward the ground., and its place is continu- 
ously supplied by new portions of the atmos- 
phere. To the same cause, we may attri- 
bute copious deposition of dew on wool and 
other fibrous materials which, though they 
do not radiate heat more freely into space, 
they entangle and retain the air between 
their fibres, and thus allow the cooling pro- 
cess we have described to go on. It would 
appear that spider-webs radiate heat freely 
into space, since they are generally covered 
with a large amount of dew ; their insulated 
position prevents them from renewing their 
heat, But, according to the above principle, 
a much larger amount of deposition ought 
to be produced by the same material, were 
it loosely gathered up* into a fibrous mass. 
The fact of the screening influence of the 
clouds teaches us that a thin cloth, or eveu 
a slight gauze, supported horizontally over 
tender plants, is sufficient to neutialize the 
radiation, and to prevent injury from frost 
during the clear nights of spring or autumn. 
The same effect is produced by artificial 
clouds of smoke. 

Since radiation from the surface of the 
earth is most intense on clear nights, when 
th 



as a portion of that which it received Prom 

the sun ; and hence Sir John Herschcl has 
referred to this cause, with apparent prob- 
ability, the origin of an assertion of the 
sailors, that "the moon eats up the clouds. "' 
He supposes that they may be dissipated by 
the radiant heat from tliat body, which, 
being of low intensity and but feebly pene- 
trating the lower stratum of the atmosphere, 
may serve to dissipate the clouds. Though 
a wrong explanation is generally given by 
the popular observer of natural phenomena, 
and though effects and causes arc frequently 
made to change places in his explanations, 
yet it is true, as Biot has properly said, that 
the scientist who devotes himself assidu- 
ously to investigate the subject of popu- 
lar errors, will find in them a sufficient 
amount of truth to fully repay him for his 
labour. 

Formation of Fogs. — The difference be- 
tween a fog and a cloud relates principally 
to the conditions under which they are 
severally formed. A fog has been aptly 
called a cloud resting on the earth, and a 
cloud a fog suspended in the atmosphere. 
The circumstances under which a fog is 
usually produced are the following : Either 
the surface of the earth or water is warmer 
than the air, or it is cooler. If the tempera- 
ture of a river or of a damp portion of 
ground is higher than that of the atmos- 
phere which rests upon it, the warmer 
surface will give off vapour of an elastic 
force due to its temperature. Should the 
superincumbent air be extremely dry, the 
vapour will diffuse itself up through it in 
an invisible form, without condensation, 
and no fog will be formed until, by the 
continuation of the process the air becomes 
completely saturated; and then if an ex- 
cess of heat remain in the evaporating sur- 
face, the fog will be produced, and will in- 
crease in density and height so long as a 
difference of temperature continues. If, 
however, a wind be blowing at the time, so 



e moon is visible, many of the effects. , . ' .. ,v „*„- *,wi :„ 

. , , .,.' J , , I that successive portions ot unsaturated air 

moh •>!•/-> /Inn tn this i>«im:o h-n-o noon v.^>_ * _ ... • 



which are due to this cause, have been re 
ferred to lunar influence; for example, a 
piece of fresh meat exposed to the moon- 
light, is said to become tainted in a few 
hours j this ma}' arise from the deposition 
of moisture on the surface of the meat due 
to the coolinjr from radiation. The moon 



are brought over the place, no fog will be 
produced. A still atmosphere, therefore, is 
a necessary condition to the accumulation 
of fog. 

The foregoing is the usual method in 
which fog is produced, for it is well known 



itself, however, acts as a cloud and radiates that in cold weather the surfaces of lakes 
back to the earth a portion of the heat and rivers are much wanner than the strata 
which it received from the earth, as well of air which rest upon them. 



502 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



It is, however, frequently observed that 
fogs are formed during still nights, in low 
places, when the surface of the ground is 
colder than the stratum of the atmosphere 
whice rests upon it, and, indeed, we have 
shown that the temperature of the surface 
Of the earth on a still and clear night is al- 
ways lower than that of the air which is 
immediately in contact with it; and it is 
not easy, without further explanation, to see 
the reason why fogs should not always be 
produced in this case as well as dew. When 
the atmosphere is still, tlie condensation of 
the vapour by the coldness of the surface 
is so gradual that the air is not disturbed, 
and the strata immediately above the grass 
has relatively less moisture in it than that 
a few yards higher ; hence, no fog ought to 
he produced in this case, since all the pre- 
cipitation produced is that which has set- 
tled directly upon the grass in the form of 
dew. In this ease we may define the dew 
to be a fog entirely condensed into drops of 
water. The question still arises, how, un- 
der these conditions, can a fog really be 
produced ? The answer is, that another 
■condition is required, namely, that the sur- 
face, cooled by radiation, should slope to a 
lower level, as in the side of a hill or the 
concave surface of the sides of a hollow. 
In this case the superincumbent stratum of 
air of which the temperature has been 
lowered by contact with the cold earth, 
flows down the declivity, by its greater 
weight, into the valley below, and there, 
mingling with the damp air which gener- 
ally exists . in such places, precipitates a 
part of its transparent vapour into visible 
fog. In the way we have described, large 
hollows are sometimes seen in the morning, 
filled with a mass of fog, exhibiting a defi- 
nite and level surface, presenting the ap- 
pearance of a lake of which the shores are 
bounded by the surrounding eminences ; 
and if a depression of sufficient depth oc- 
curs in any part of the circumference of 
the basin, through this the fog is seen 
to flow like a river from the outlet of a 
lake. 

The explanation we have here given of 
the formation of fog in low places is also 
applicable to the phenomenon, frequently 
observed, of early frost in the same locali- 
ties. As rapidly as the air is cooled on the 
sides of sloping ground it sinks into the 
valley below, and its place is supplied by 
the warmer air above, which has not been 



subjected to the cooling influence. In the 
vicinity of Washington, the hollows are 
sometimes found several degrees colder than 
the more elevated parts of the surrounding 
surface. Fogs are produced on the ocean 
when a little wind, charged with mokture, 
mingles with another of a lower tempera- 
ture. The wind from the Gulf Stream^ 
mixing with the cold air which rests upon 
the water from, the arctic regions, which, as 
we have before stated, flows along elose to 
the eastern shores of our Continent, gives 
rise ,to the prevalence of fog over the 
Banks of Newfoundland. 

There is another atmospherical phenome- 
non which, though it does not affect the hy- 
grometer, and is only indirectly connected 
with moisture, is generally classed with fogs. 
I allude to what is called dry fog — a smoky 
haziness of the atmosphere, which frequent- 
ly extends over a large portion of the earth. 
The nature of these fogs is now pretty well 
understood, and more refined observations, 
particularly with the microscope, have ser- 
ved to dissipate the mystery in which they 
were formerly enshrouded. When a portion 
of the air in which the fog exists is filtered, 
as it were, through water, and the substance 
which is retained is examined with the mi- 
croscope, it is found to consist of minute frag- 
ments, in some cases, of burnt plants, and in 
others of the ashes of volcanoes. It is sur- 
prising to what a distance the pollen of 
plants and minute fragments of charred 
leaves may be carried. Samples of substan- 
ces which have been collected from rain 
water and examined microscopically by Pro- 
fessor Schaeffer, of Washington, at the re- 
quest of the Smithsonian Institution, have 
been found to consist of portions of plants 
which must have come from a great distance, 
since the species to which they belong are 
not found in abundance in the localities at 
which the specimens were obtained. It is 
highly probable that a portion of the smoke 
or fog-cloud produced by the burning of one 
of our Western prairies is carried entirely 
across the eastern portion of the Continent 
to the ocean. On this subject, Dr. Small- 
wood communicated a series of interesting 
observations to the American Association at 
their meeting in Albany, in 1855. Parti- 
cles of matter of the kind we have descri- 
bed are good absorbers and radiators of 
heat, and hence in the daytime they must 
become warmer than the surrounding atmos- 
phere, and tend to be buoyed up by the ex- 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



503 



pansion of the air which exists in the inter- 
stices between them,, while at night they be- 
come cooler by radiation than tie surround- 
ing air, and tend to condense upon them- 
selves the neighboring moisture, and conse- 
quently to sink to a lower level. It is on 
this account that the smoky clouds which 
are produced by the enterprising manufac- 
turing establishments of Pittsburg and other 
"Western cities, in still weather, sometimes 
descend to the surface of the earth, and en- 
velop the inhabitants in a sable curtain more 
indicative of material prosperity than of do- 
mestic comfort. From the density and the 
wide diffusion of these smoky clouds they 
must produce a sensible effect upon the tem- 
perature of the season of the year in which 
they occur. During a still night, when a 
cloud of this kind is over head, no dew is 
produced ; the heat which is radiated from 
the earth is reflected or absorbed and radia- 
ted back again by the particles of soot, and 
the cooling of the earth necessary to pro- 
duce the deposition of water in the form of 
dew and hoar frost is prevented. 

So well aware of this fact are the inhabi- 
tants of some parts of Switzerland that, ac- 
cording to a paper by Boussingault, in a late 
number of the " Annales de Chimie," they 
kindle large fires in the vicinity of their 
vine fields and cover them with brush to pro- 
duce a smoke-cloud by which to defend the 
tender plants from the effects of an untime- 
ly frost. Though the first announcement of 
the proposition by some of our earlier me- 
teorologists, that the peculiar condition of 
the atmosphere known as Indian summer 
might be produced by the burning of the 
prairies, was not thought worthy of any 
comment, yet the advance of science in re- 
vealing the facts I have stilted renders this 
hypothesis by no means unworthy of atten- 
tion. 

A large amount of smoke existing in the 
atmosphere must have a very sensible effect 
in ameliorating the temperature of the sea- 
son by preventing the cooling due to radia- 
tion ; and although this may not be the sole 
cause of the peculiarity of the weather we 
have mentioned, it may be an important 
consideration in accounting for the smoky 
appearance of the air, and the effect produ- 
ced upon the eyes. 

In concluding this section, we would com- 
mend to the* attention of the microscopists 
of this country, as a readily accessible and 
interesting field of research, the* subject of 



atmospheric dust. The atmosphere con- 
stantly holds in suspension a mass of parti- 
cles derived from tJie mineral crust of tin; 
globe and from animals and vegetables, 
which, by being deposited in undisturbed 
positions, serves as a record to be read by 
the microscope of changes alike interesting 
to the antiquarian and the naturalist. On 
this subject, 31. Pouehct has lately present- 
ed a paper to the French Academy of Sci- 
ence, in which he enumerates the particles 
iof mineral, animal and vegetable origin, 
I which he has found deposited from the at- 
mosphere. Under the latter he mentions 
specially particles of wheat flour which have 
been found as an ingredient of dust in 
tombs and vaults of churches undisturbed 
for centuries. The dust floating in the at- 
mosphere may readily be collected by filter- 
ing the air through a tube swelled in the 
middle, bent into the form of a syphon, par- 
tially filled with water and attached at the 
lower end to the vent-hole of a cask from 
which water is drawn, or simply by sucking 
through the air by means of the mouth. 
Prof. Henry in Patent Office Report of 1S58. 



For the Soutliern Planter. 

The best Time for Closing the Agricul- 
tural Year. 

Mr. Editor : —At your earnest request to 
Farmers, in the June number of the Planter, 
to write something, I have concluded to pen 
a few of my thoughts, which, if you think 
fit, you can give a place in your paper. I 
think I can make a suggestion or two, that 
no one will hardly controvert, and but few, 
who will think for a moment, can fail to see 
the utility of. It is this — the expiration 
of the Farmer's year : I am sure the first of 
December will suit us much better than the 
first of January — certainly as to the change 
of overseers and hired servants on the farm. 
When an arrangement has been made for 
an overseer to change his home, the sooner 
he can leave, after carefully housing the 
crop and seeding the wheat, the better for 
himself and his employer, as well as for 
his successor and his succeeding em- 
ployer. The overseer has, what is of 
importance, if he is a married man, better 
weather and- better roads generally for mov- 
ing his family; he gets to his new home 
and makes some start for his succeeding 
crop before Christmas, and is there during 
the holidays to attend to the stock and ser- 
vants, and other things about the farm that 



504 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



are usually, and almost of necessity, very 
much neglected about that time, because the 
overseer is just moving then, and has not 
arranged his hands, &c. There are so many 
palpable advantages to all parties concerned, 
that to me it is really surprising that this 
chancre has not been made Ions: ago ; and 

o no/ 

as this is the season of the year for employ- 
ing overseers, I hope as many persons as can 
will adopt the suggestion above, and set the 
ball in motion at once. I aleo think it is 
just as much the interest of those persons 
who have hands to hire out, to let the 
year commence the first of December, as 
it can be to the interest of hirers ; and 
this they can do very easily, by hir- 
ing them out next Christmas for eleven 
months. In all probability they can make 
a month's hire by the operation. I think 
their hands will bring almost as much money 
for eleven months as they would for twelve. 
But if they lost three months by it, they 
could well afford to do it, rather than have 
their servants turned loose during Christ- 
mas, as they must of necessity be, when 
they have to change homes, and go to hir- 
ings, &c, and are exposed to the extreme 
winter weather, and the many temptations 
of the holidays. There is no knowing the 
amount of disease contracted by servants 
that run at large, as most hired servants do, 
about Christmas. In addition, the women 
and little children have to change homes, 
regardless of weather. 

I am sure if any other set of business 
men could benefit themselves as much by so 
simple a change as the farmers can by this, 
it would be done at once ; there would be 
some united action immediately ; some gen- 
tleman would make some figures about the 
matter, and call public attention to it, and 
the change would be made. But, alas ! 
alas ! for our profession ! the great majority 
of us are unmoved by figures. We neither 
believe in book farming nor figure farming. 
But I do think it is high time we had sha- 
ken off our lethargy, and had taken the po- 
sition in the world that our occupation would 
feem to indicate, and that very many assume 
sor it. Will some gentleman, who has been 
using the wheat drill for several years, tell 
me on what size crop it will pay; or rather, 
on what is the smallest size crop that one 
could afford to purchase one for ; how much 
seed per acre is saved by them ; how much 
guano is saved by them ; how much labor is 
saved by them ; and what per cent, is the 



probable increase of the crop by the use of 
them ? Are they liable to get out of fix ? 
Can they be adapted with success to the or- 
dinary wheat lands of Virginia ? Do stumps 
and hillside-ditches interfere much with 
them j and any other matter pertinent, that 
would be of benefit to a young 

Farmer. 
Mecklenburg, July 10, 1850. 



Grumblers. — If you find a man disposed 
to complain of the coldness of the world, 
be sure you will find that he has never 
brought anything into the world to warm it, 
but he is a personal lump of ice set in it. 
If you find a man who complains that the 
world is all base and hollow, tap him, and 
he will probably sound base and hollow. 
And so, in the other way, a kind man will 
probably find kindness all about him. The 
merciful man, as a general thing, will obtain 
mercy. He who has always had a kind 
excuse for others, who has looked at the 
brightest side of the case ; he who has ren- 
dered his pardon and his help whenever he 
could, who has never brought his fellow 
man into any strait by reason of his not 
helping him — will find that mercy which 
he has bestowed flows back upon him in a 
full and spontaneous spring. He will make 
a merciful world by the mercy he himself 
shows. 



Worth Knowing. — The great difficulty 
of getting horses from a stable where sur- 
rounding- buildings are in a state of confla- 
gration, is well known, and that in conse- 
quence of such difficulty, arising from the 
animal's dread of stirring from the scene of 
destruction, many animal's have perished in 
the flames. A gentleman whose horses were 
in great peril from such a cause, having in 
vain tried to save them, hit upon the exper- 
iment of having them harnessed, as though 
they were going to their usual work, when, 
to his astonishment, there were led from the 
stable without difficulty. — Spirit of the 
Times. 



A# Gentleman on a western steamboat, 
asked the man who came to collect the pas- 
sage money if there was any danger of 
being blown up, as the ste.<m made such a 
horrid noise. "Not the leasl," said the 
sharp conductor, " unless you refuse to pay 
your fare." 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



505 




(bfjc $rttfctjT.> JJIanin, 



RICHMOND, VIRGINIA. 



Manipulated Guano. 

We have for some time past been very strongly 
inclined to believe in the truth of the assertion, 
that Peruvian Guano alone, was not of equal val- 
ue, pound for pound, with a mixture of Peruvian 
and Phosphate of Lime. We regret that we can- 
not give the name of the father of this theory to 
pur readers, beyond the possibility of doubt or 
contradiction — since we believe it has in its re- 
sults already conferred a great benefit on farm- 
ers, and will eventually prove of signal service 
to those who wish to improve both lands and 
crops by the use of Guano. 

We are no theorist on any subject, and had 
much rather be engaged in gleaning wheat, than 
in "sky scraping" for the purpose of gathering 
plausible arguments in support of anything new 
and improbable — consequently we reduce our 
farming operations, and try to bring all our ex- 
penditures for agricultural purposes, to the test 
of that homely and useful adage, "Will it pay ?" 
If we think we derive particular benefit from 
any special agricultural practice, we do not hesi- 
tate to say to our brethren, " Go and do likewise.* 1 
This is at once both our duty and pleasure. We 
therefore owe no npology to the Peruvian Gov- 
ernment for advising our farmers to Jlmcricanize 
the Guano they send out so liberally, and charge 
so exorbitantly for, before using it as the special 
manure for wheat and grass crops. We have 
been a close observer of the effects of Guano for 
ten years past, and have several times had to 
pay rather dearly for our whistle by the use of 
it, without any benefit accruing to us. We have 
come to the conclusion that no farmer should 
run the risk of incurring a dead loss of several 
dollars to the acre for manures, if from any 
cause they should prove inoperative and the 
crop should fail. It is certainly wiser in apply- 
ing fertilizers, to use such as will enable him to 
lay up a store for the future on which his land 



may draw If the growing crop should fail of 
deriving preseni advantage from Its Application. 
Therefore lie should be accumulating Photpkates 
in his soil, if possible, the benefits of which will 
be apparent sooner or later. As regards the 

wheat crop, this is especially liable to disasters 
from insect enemies, enpropitious seasons, and 

accidents from lire and Hood. As a cla.-s, un- 
fortunately we farmers are not SO well endowed 
with this world's goods, as to be able 10 pay five 
or six dollars an acre for the pleasure of reap- 
ing a big crop of straw — and yet there are many 
who have had but little better success from using 
Peruvian Guano on wheat. 

For ourselves we can assert truly that we ne- 
ver succeeded but once in a good crop of grain 
when we used it alone — nor did we ever fail to 
make a big crop of straw. 

The exhaustion of the Phosphatic elements of 
our soils has for many years been progressing 
steadily and surely — while we have done very 
little towards replenishing this all important con- 
stituent of grain and grass crops. We hope sin- 
cerely that a better time has come, and that we 
may now secure from the use of Guano, a bene- 
fit which we have not heretofore received. 

Many of those manufacturers engaged in the 
process of '• Manipulating," are now preparing 
a Guano containing 8 per cent of Ammonia and 
50 per cent, of Phosphate of Lime. The source 
which supplies tVe latter article is the ash of 
bones. If the use of an article so manufactur- 
ed, does not secure to the farmer who sows it, 
much greater benefit to both land, and crop, 
than he ever received from Peruvian alone, we 
shall be grievously disappointed, and feel like 
" a victim to mistaken confidence." 

Last fall we used a compound of Peruvian 
Guano and Phosphate of Lime, to Which we 
added on our own hook, one third of Ground 
Plaster. This harvest we have had more grain 
in proportion to straw, than ever before in our 
farming experience. So much for Manipulators. 
Could we reap another benefit coming from the 
direction of the Millers, in the shape of increas- 
ed weight per bushel, and a big price, we would 
throw our can in the air, and hurrah for our 
side. 

It is a great pity that the manufacture of con- 
centrated fertilizers should ever have fallen into 
the hands of dishonest persons, and that the 
word Humbug, should have proved a tombstone 
to mark the final resting place of so many dol- 
lars, departed never to return, to the homes, the 



506 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER 



[August 



affections and the pockets of former devoted 
owners. A pity, but it is true. 

Many of us have been rendered suspicious in- 
stead of cautious, and almost every farmer has 
in his time received a '• back-set" at the hands 
of some kna-'e, who had discovered a panacea 
for all the evils incident to poor land. 

We have before remarked, that the only safe- 
guard we have against filling into such traps, is 
in the honesty and business and moral standing 
of manufacturers and vendors. We must know 
what we buy, and who we buy from ; whether 
the article is, or is not made by a man who lias 
a character to lose, and whether the vendor can 
be trusted to keep it in store for some weeks, or 
months, without any risk of its acquiring a too 
intimate mixture with sand or dust. This much 
nearly all of us can do for ourselves, as we know 
what sort of men we deal with after awhile, as 
we see them in different lights. Honesty will 
show out from some one point, and caution is 
never needless until it does. 

For ourself, we are not at all afraid of any 
misrepresentation as to the ingredients and qual- 
ity of the Manipulated Guano, put into the mar- 
ket in this city. We have five manufacturing 
establishments here, all of which are of highest 
respectability. There are also others in Peiers* 
burg and Alexandria possessing equally high 
claims to public confidence. Baltimore too has 
her establishments, some of which have won 
for themselves a high reputation. 

The gentlemen representing these several es- 
tablishments are all well known, and make no 
secret of the ingredients used, nor their process 
of compounding them. As to the comparative 
merits of the articles they sell, it would be in- 
vidious to discriminate,-— of this let every man 
form his own opinion. 

We will only add that, we advise everybody 
to mix plaster liberally with all the Guano they 
sow, as we believe the addition of plaster mate- 
rially helps to render it immediately soluble. 



Commercial, Agricultural, and Intellec- 
tual Independence of Virginia. 

In a letter recently published in the Rich- 
mond Enquirer, answering to a call from a num- 
ber of highly respectable citizens of Hanover, 
Mr. Daniel H. London, renews and amplifies 
the discussion of the matter of his speech de- 
livered and published last winter on the Com- 
mercial, Agricultural, and Intellectual Indepen- 



dence of Virginia, to which we have before 
adverted in the pages of this journal. 

He opens the discussion with the proposition 
implied in the following interrogatory : 

"Are the people of the Southern States inimi- 
cal to a Direct Foreign Commerce independent 
of the Northern States?" 

As a just criterion of the sentiments of -a na- 
tion, he refers to its laws. If public acts, long 
sustained by public opinion and continued in 
force without opposition, do by their operation, 
reveal a purpose to maintain a settled policy 
in favour of, or in opposition to, a given course 
of public procedure, it would be folly to contend 
that such laws were not the true exponents of 
public sentiment in relation to the subjects to 
to which they refer. He then subjects the pol- 
icy of Virginia to the test of her laws, in re- 
gard to the subject of direct foreign commerce. 
"Are they indifferent to the subject, or are they 
in positive hostility?" What say her license 
laws ? " She taxes on each of the sales of her 
merchants and increases the per cent, as the 
sales decrease in amount." Not one of the 
other States has pursued this policy, and Vir- 
ginia has done it in derogation of the Consti- 
tution, which prescribes equality and uniformi- 
ty in taxation. "Surely," says he, "two per 
cent, onjane, and a quarter per cent, on another, 

is NOT EQUAL OR UNIFORM FOR SELLING, and We is- 

sue no merchants 'license For anything else." 
Goods manufactured in Virginia and foreign 
merchandize in the hands of the importer are 
not subjected to any tax on their first sale. 
But if the importer design to sell by the pack- 
age it avails him nothing, because he already 
enjoys this immunity through federal legisla- 
tion, and therefore the exemption enures only to 
the Virginia producer. Mr. Lopdon charges that, 
although there may be professed friendship in 
the proposed exemption, it is in fact but addi- 
tional evidence of hostility to direct foreign com- 
merce, when we come to trace it in its effects. 
The general commercial usage is to distribute 
merchandize, for the purpose of reaping the 
benefits of the universally recognized principle 
of the division of labour, through at least three 
hands, viz: " the Importer or package man, the 
Jobber, or piece man, and the Retailer or yard 
man." Now if there is a repetition of tax each 
time the goods pass for re-sale from hand to 
hand, is it not plain that the accumulation of 
charges has the direct tendency to discourage 
importation into the State from abroad, and to 






T II K BOUTHBRN PLANTKI1 






induce the imall retail denier to pur 

a jobber in another State rather than burden his 

stock, if purchased at home, with accumulated 

levied in transitu as an increase of their 
coat ! WiU he not wisely go to purchase where 
his goods when brought into the State, will be 
liable to the payment of no other tax than his 
own I anil does not this show that our laws as 

effectually oppose direct importation as if they 

had heen most cunningly devised to accomplish 
that very object ? "The law." says Mr. Lon- 
don, '-has been almost completely successful 
in expelling all wholesale or package mer- 
chants, as there are but few, if any, exclusively 
foreign traders, or properly speaking wholesale 
merchants in Virginia. The Jobber is truly 
permitted to purchase of the Virginia importe r 
in conformity with the provisions of law, with- 
out tax, but the retailer who buys of the Vir- 
ginia Jobber must pay the Jobber's tax even on 
the articles of Virginia production, or directly 
imported, for certainly this disadvantage exi>ts; 
but upon all other articles, the retailer in Vir- 
ginia, if he buys in Virginia, pays the State tax 
on each sale, — thus delivering the goods, bought 
and sold in Virginia three times taxed to the 
consumer, with three separate State taxes." 
* * * "If, then, as may be seen by the li- 
sence act itself that the largest dealers pay the 
very least percentage upon their sales, and the 
smaller dealers more, as their operations de- 
crease, then the plain consequence must be 
that the exemption to foreign commerce with 
which the action is sought to be molified, is in 
fact too insignificant to overcome the hardiness 
of the measure in other respects; and as it can 
only confer a benelit in any event to the extent 
of the tax which the importer escapes upon his 
sales of articles directly imported, we can only 
find upon the most liberal basis, that it will 
reach one-fourth of one per cent.! as the Au- 
ditor's Report declares that to be the highest 
sum which the average of the large merchants 
of the State woidd pay. We then affirm that 
in the license act of the last General Assembly- 
there is another announcement of warfare upon 
all independent commerce, as the tax bill spe- 
cially continues in force the bounty to tho job- 
bers and retailers of the State of from three- 
fourths to two per cent, on each $100 of their 
operations to go out of tho State, and of course 
into some other State, to transact all the bu.-i- 
ness they can." But he here introduces the ac- 
tion of the corporate authorities of several of 



our chief commercial cities, as greatly aggra- 



vating the evils complains I of. [n the 

of Norfolk, Alexandria and Petersburg, "one 

sees, the same outright and undisguised assault 

on the foreign and dome-tie trade, and in SO 

far as they can drive oil* and prevent commer- 
cial intercourse amongst they own 
they do it; as the sales only, and that upon each 
sale of the same article is taxed about three* 
eighth of one per cent.; the grading being 
slightly deferent from that adopted by the State. 
But superadded to all this, these corporations 

tax all monies and personal property about the 
same with real estate. In Richmond a 

scale tax of 50 cents on the $100. bottomed upon 
the capital in trade, (it was at one time 1.10) 
has been adopted in lieu of sales ; besides, 
there is a tax on incomes. But in each of all 
the other towns the most unqualified evidence 
is furnished of a determination of these corpo- 
rations, so far as their # action is concerned, that 
they will prevent the wholesaler from residing 
in Norfolk, Alexandria, or Petersburg, for the 
jobber cannot escape the tax of the city, which 
is paid by the wholesaler; and if he does that, 
as few jobbers as possible shall buy of them ; 
and then, again, that the retailer shall not buy 
of the jobber, for they offer him two city taxes 
to go into some other town, in another State, 
and buy them, so that we shall have State ami 
city together, saying to the jobber: We will re- 
lease you from one city and one State tax, 
together at.least three-eighths of one per cent, 
to go out of our State and buy; and to the re. 
tailer they hold out two taxes each — that is, the 
State will give the 

Wholesaler's tax, 25 

Jobber's tax, ? 50 

[The city wilfcgive — ] 

Wholesaler's tax, 13 

Jobber's tax, 25 

1.13 
That is, we will release the retailers these four 
taxes of about 1.13 on each $100 if they will 
oblige us by patronizing somebody other than 
one of our own citizens. But let the retailer 
buy, and what is the condition of the consumer ? 
Why. he absolutely pays six taxes — three to 
the State of Virginia, ami three to the corpora- 
tion of Norfore, or Alexandria or Petersburg." 
as the case may be. 

" But this is not alone the case with this State 
and the Virginia cities. Our Southern friends 
in other States come up like men to the same 



508 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



work. Let us see liow Charleston, the chief 
port of South Carolina, ants in this most unwor- 
thy warfare on an independent foreign trade; 
si 20 on the stock of gootUoii hand averaged, 
is her demand; and this effectually kills any 
deposit! of good's there, for it just amounts to a 
storage charge of one dollar and thirty cents to 
the city government. Everyone familiar with 
commerce, must know that, in most articles, an 
examination of the article itself is required by 
the purchaser; and by consequence, if the city 
defeats a deposit of the article, she cuts or! to 
that extent this prerequisite, and sends off her 
customers to points where the goods may be 
seen and inspected before purchase. This, then, 
is hostility to any stock being kept for supplies, 
and forces the closest purchases by her mer- 
chants: and, by consequence, no article waiting 
a market will be left i'n Charleston by the owner, 
as a less inhospitable point will be found for a 
depot, until purchasers present themselves. 
But the State of South Carolina comes forward 
with a demand, also, of ten cents on each hun- 
dred dollars, on each sale upon her soil, in 
which we discover many of the odious features 
of the Virginia system, to wit: demanding a 
tax on each sale. And having demonstrated the 
Virginia license tax to act as a premium or a 
bounty to every merchant in the State to make 
all his purchases out of the State, we have only 
to apply the same general remarks to South Car- 
olina. 

"In Georgia we have by the State all goods, 
wares or merchandize treated as personal pro- 
perty, and taxed at the same rate as other 
property. The Corporation of Savannah, her 
chief seaport, levies fier city tax on all goods, 
wares, and merchandize and stolk in trade, as 
well as capital at one per cent. ; the same with 
real property ; in other words, the charges, like 
Charleston, a storage of one per cent, on all 
merchandize. And, having shown its effects 
in Charleston, we need only repeat the same 
remarks respecting Savannah. There is three- 
eights of one per cent, levied on all the gross 
sales by commission, which must be intended 
to catch the cotton. What folly in a city seek- 
ing any amount of trade in this or any other 
article, to tax it because it passes through the 
town! It will find some olher^uitlet if pos- 
sible, sooner or later. 

" The State of Alabama taxes each sale made 
on her soil, 90 cents on the hundred dollars 
e xcept foreign cargo sales) at auction : but all 



other auction sales, one dollar on the hundred 
dollars, with permission to extend it to one and 
a half per cent, by the charter, in Mobile, where 
the tax is. on licenses, dividing her merchants 
into retail and wholesale ; but capital is taxed 
by the corporation. The same observations, 
to a cerUiin extent, applied to the Virginia sys- 
tem and to the South Carolina one, are true-, 
respecting the Alabama State tax. 

" Louisiana taxes capital at one-sixth of one 
per cent., but adds the discrimination on licen- 
ces ; wholesalers paying $80, retailers $15. 

"The State taxes of New Orleans are, by 
the report of the Auditor of Louisiana for the 
year 1859, on trades, professions and occupa- 
tions in the Parish of Orleans, $159,180; auc- 
tion taxes $33,118 07; in all the rest of the 
State of Louisiana, $80,331 25, while the whole 
of the State taxes proper on other subjects in 
every district was $655,029 57 ; or, in other 
words, more than one-fourth of the entire State 
revenue is taken from the use of capital in 
merchandize, or in some other pursuit which 
is licensed. To be added to this, we must see 
the New Orleans city taxes, which are $1 30 
on all personal property, with $75 for whole- 
sale, and $25 for retail merchants not selling 
liquors; but every vocation is taxed specially ; 
and to this sum of $1 .30 cents is to be added 
20 cents for railroad tax, as it is called — in all, 
$1 50 on capital. 

" Missouri taxes for State and county purpo- 
ses, 70 cents on each $100 of the invoice 
value of merchandize on hand 1st of April 
each year. The city of St. Louis requires 50 
cents on each $100 of the largest amount on 
hand any day from 1st April to 1st June, each 
year — together $1 20 on stock on hand, or cap- 
ital — every bank in every Southern State is a 
deaier in exchange ; and in many instances 
nothing more. The fact, that Northern corpo- 
rations may levy taxes of a similar character, 
is no reason why we should follow the same 
course. 

* '• In Maryland we have the State demanding 
a tax on the stock in trade, and Baltimore tax- 
ing $1 10 on capital. We are met with many 
such expressions as that the Southern towns are 
unhealthy, and that trade will never flow in 
artificial channels. Grant the first statement 
respecting some of the Southern towns, yet it 
is an absurdity to make your taxes an additional 
burthen against a point when insalubrity has al- 
ready placed it at a disadvantage. But Balti- 



I860.] 



THE SOUTIIKKX T'LANTK.!. 






more is healthy. As 10 the ether assertion* re- 
specting artificial regulations, every candid 

mind must know that f rOTJ petti BOTernmental 

qr commercial centre in the Fniverse has beefl 
built by artificial vicans. True, so much la HOI 
10 b« nvcrrimic when the situation is advanta- 
lm'uu-, hut certainly no commercial centre ex- 
isted In the beginning of all things. We are, 
however, hy a reference to nil of these acts of 
Southern States and corporations, furnished 
with conclusive proof, so far as all these States 
and corporations are concerned, that they are 
not friendly in their action to commercial sub- 
jects, but openly and positively legislaling in 
every way to cut up and expel the foreign 
trader and all others exeept the retail shop- 
keepers from our soil. We are reminded of 
Mr. Jefferson's observations respecting Eng 
land, and may therefore use them : ' Do we not 
know that the Northern States have wished 
a monopoly of commerce and influence with 
us; and they have in fact obtained it? When 
we take notice that theirs is the workshop to 
which we go for all we want; that with them 
centre either immediately or ultimately all the 
labours of our hands and lands; that to them 
belongs either openly or secretly, the great 
mass of our navigation ; that even the factorage 
of their affairs here is kept to themselves by 
factitious citizenship ; 'hat these foreign and 
false citizens now constitute the great body of 
what are called our merchants, till our seaports, 
are planted in every little town and district in 
the interior country, sway everything in the 
former places by their own votes and those of 
their dependants, in the latter by their insinu- 
ations and the influence of their ledgers; that 
they are advancing fast to a monopoly of our 
banks and public funds, ami thereby placing 
our public finances under their control; that 
they have in their alliance the most influential 
characters in and out of office— when they 
have shown that, by all these bearings of the 
different branches of the Government, they can 
force it to proceed in whatever direction they 
dictate, and bend the interests of this country 
entirely to the will of another— when all this, 
I say. is attended to, it is impossible for us 
to say we stand on independent ground — im- 
possible for a free mind not to see and to 
groan under the bondage in which it >s 
bound.' ; ' 



The United Fair of the Virginia State 
and Central Va. Agricultural Societies. 
We mentioned la ■ eeaeq hi oejt laat leene, thai 
the specifications for the two prerniums I 

pel mi/nts would be pnbli>hcd in this ihiiiiIht • 

Since then, the committee addressing themselves 
earnestly to the work, have found it beset with 

unforeseen difficulties which have not been 
overcome, and it is likely, as at present advised, 
they will be withdrawn. Cut if they are 
the specifications will be published in the 
pamphlet edition of the premium list soon forth- 
coming. 

TRIAL OF SPEED, 

The premiums 182 to 189 inclusive have beer! 

reviewed and altered by concurrent action of the 

Executive Committees of the two Societies, who 

have adopted the following substituted schedule . 

B2. Horses, Mares or Gelding-, for best 

time not exceeding 2 min. 60 seconds, 

FIRST PREMIUM. $ -' 



1 83. Horses, Mares or Geldings, for best 
time not exceeding 3 minutes, second 
premium, 

181. Colts or Fillies, 3 years old and under 
4, for best time not exceeding 3 min. 

30 Sec., FIRST PREMIUM, 

185. Colts or Fillies, 3 years old and un- 
der 4, for best time not exceeding 3 
min. 40 sec, secon'd premium, 

186. Horses, Mares or Geldings, 4 years old 
and under 7, for best time not exceed- 
ing 3 minutes, first premium, 

187. "Ho 



150 



100 



50 



150 



rses, Mares or Geldings. 4 years old 
and under 7. for best time not exceed' 
in-_r •'{ rnin. 10 sec.; second premium, 7fi 

188 anil 189 Merged in the above, 

A joint Committee of the two Societies are 
engaged in preparing the rules and regulations 
for the Fair, which will be found in the painph' 
let edition of the premium list when issued. 

FARMERS ASSEMBLY. 

An election will be held in all the electoral 
districts at the September courts ©f each county 
for delegates to the next Farmer's Assembly, 
which will meet on the night of the Bxsl day of 
the Fair. Many important changes in the Con- 
stitution of the State Society are foreshadowed 
by notices given in accordance with its require- 
ment at the last meeting, and it is tbereibre of 
the greatest importance that members should 
exert themselves actively to secure a full dele- 
gation' from every district to the next assembly* 



Acknowledgements. 

The following pamphlets ha ve been received 
The National Educator, a monthly magazine 
devoted to Science, Literature. Morals and Eilu- 



510 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



cation, for the use of Teachers, Schools and 
Families. R» Curty, A. M., editor, Pittsburg, 



pp. j; 



Trice, $1 per annum. 



Premium List of the First Annual Fair op 
Tfis Cotton Planters' Convention op the State 
of Georgia, to be held for three weeks in the 
eity of Macon, beginning on the 1st Monday in 
December, I860. Will embrace the Foreign 
Deportment and Manufactures of the Southern 
States, Fine Arts, Ac* 

Organisation of the Cotton Power, contain- 
ing a communication from the President, Mr. 
Secretary Cobb, to which we shall probably pay 
Our respects in a future number. 

Transactions op the State Agricultural So- 
ciety of South Carolina. Compiled by R.~ J, 
Gage, Secretary of the Society* 

This volume opens with a strong and vigor- 
ous speech by Col. A. P. Calhoun, President, 
and son of the late Hon. J> C. Calhoun. As 
might be expected, his loyalty to the South, and 
ardent devotion to Southern rights and Southern 
interests, are vital principles, which inform eve- 
ry line of it, as with living energy. We should 
like to make copious extracts from it, did space 
allow, but must defer doing so to a future num- 
ber. 

catalogues. 

The University of Virginia, 1S5D- 60. 

Piedmont Female Academy, Albemarle. 

Mr. Lefebvre's School, Grace Street, Rich- 
mond. 

Old Dominion Institute, Richmond. 

Bloom tie Id Academy, Albemarle. 

The Virginia Farm Journal. 

The subscribers to the Virginia Farm Journal 
who have paid in advance for the current year 
will be furnished with a copy of the Southern 
Planter until the close of their subscription. 
The paper will also be sent to those subscribers 
who are in arrcar for the present year, with 
bills for the amount due, which, if promptly 
paid, will entitle the subscriber, to the Planter 
for the balance of the year. If not promptly 
paid, we shall cease to send them the paper. 



are threatened with the joint-worm among us, 
if we may judge from the rate of progress it is 
making hitherward in its regular descent from 
Piedmont. We learn that the proprietor of San» 
dy Point, on lower James River, has determined 
to keep the whole produce of seven bushels 
sown last year for early resowing this year, hav* 
ing found it more productive than any other va» 
riety cultivated by him. It is proper we should 
remark, that though brighter than most varieties 
of red wheat, it is not likely to ' be in as 
high favor with the miller as some other varie. 
ties, by reason of the greater thickness of the 
bran, and consequent lighter yield in flour. 



BOOK NOTICES. 



Mediterranean Wheat. 

We are indebted to Mr. Johnston for a sample 
of his Mediterranean Wheat, of which we spoke 
in our la.-t. We will take pleasure in exhibit- 
ing it to any one who may desire to make an 
experiment in this hardy variety, now that we 



We have received from the Agricultural Book 
House of. C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co., Publishers 
of works on Agriculture, Horticulture, Rural 
Art, Domestic Economy, etc., and recommend 
to our readers The Young Farmer's Manual j 
and Farmer's Workshop. Price $1 25. One 
Volume 12mo», 400 pages. Containing two 
hundred Illustrations. By S. Edwards Todd. 

This book, which supplies a deeply felt want 
of every young farmer at the commencement of 
the business of practical agriculture, details in 
plain and intelligible language the routine of 
farm labours, and prescribes with simplicity 
and clearness the best practical and economical 
methods of laying-out a Farm, and erecting 
Buildings, Fences, and Farm Gates, and also 
full directions for the selection of good farm 
and shop Tools, their use and manufacture, 
with numerous original illustrations of Fences, 
Gates, Tools, &c, and for performing nearly 
every branch of farming operations. 

The reader will perceive from the scope of 
this book, that it is adapted to meet his almost 
every necessity in conducting his farming ope* 
rations, accompanied with the important ad* 
vantage, that instead of mere theory, he is fur- 
nished by it with the matured fruits of the ex* 
perience and observation of an eminent practi- 
cal farmer as well as able- and perspicuous ag* 
ricultural writer As evidence of the high 
estimation in which Mr. Todd is held as a 
writer, by the most competent judges, we men* 
tion the fact that the New York State Agricul- 
tural Society paid him $75 for the privilege 
of publishing the chapter on " Fences" in a 
volume of their transactions, and that Col. B. P. 
Johnson, the accomplished Secretary of the 



I860.] 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



Ml 



Boeiety, whose recosnm eadaticoi is never know* 

iiiLly bestow -ell unworthily, !i;is written to the 
publisher- the following letter: 

" Agricultural Rooms, Albany, N. Y., ) 

x.,v. 1 1, i >.v.». 5 

r«. C. M. Saxton, Barker $ Co. : 

■• S. Edwards Toddj author of the 'Young 
Fanner's Manual,' is a writer familiar Willi 
the wants of the Farmer, and from the constant 
inquiries 1 am receiving in relation to his wri- 
tingf) h \M apparent to me that lie has Struck a 
vein that will insure a large Circulation for his 

works. His writing! are practice/ in their char- 
acter; ami are well adapted to the purpose* of 
the farmers of our country, and I believe they 
Will tind an extensive demand." 



Thi Hanl»-Book or Annual Record of HORTI- 
CULTURAL AND AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS, compiled 
by Wm. P. Sheppard, Proprietor of die Horti- 
cultural Agency, New York. Containing direc- 
tions for gardening, such as enclosing and lay- 
ing-out ; preparation of soil ; manures ; selec- 
tion of seeds, and testing their vitality; sowing : 
watering or irrigation ; hoeing or weeding; ro- 
tation of crops ; tables showing the flowering 
time of orchard fruit trees, at various points ; 
the number of hills," plants, &c, to an acre, at 
any given distance ; the quantity of seqds 
usually sown in a garden of half an acre, or 
upon one acre; the standard weights per bushel 
of various seeds, &c. Also, descriptive cata- 
l of culinary vegetables, and other garden 
plants ; and of new plants, flowers and fruits 
of 1859. Price one dollar per copy. We think 
the Gardener or Floriculturist who buys this 
book, will get for his dollar a full dollar's 
worth. 



The Carpenter's Guide in Stair-Building and 
Ha>id-Railing, based upon plain and practi- 
cal principles. Illustrated by eight large en- 
graving*] with sufficient explanations to inform, 
Without confusing the learner. By Patrick 
b'Neill, Practical Stair-Builder. Published by 
J. W- Randolph, 121 Main Street, Richmond. 

The sy-teni laid down in this work, com- 
mon Is itself to the notice of the mechanic for 
its ereater simplicity than that of any other 
known method of arriving at the same geomet- 
rical accuracy and precision in adjusting the 
hand-railing of the stair-way to the curvatures 
requiied to adapt it to the prescribed area, and 
to the elevation to be overcome. It is a Vir- 
ginian Publication, and is entitled to additional 
notice on that account. 



Virginia Register. 
With the kindest feelings towards it- estima- 
ble Editor, ami best wishes for the complete 
Success of his enterprise, we introduce to out 
readers The Virginia Register, a large octavo 
Monthly, of 48 pages, Edited by F. Thomas, 
Esq., who is also Proprietor. The character 

and design of the publication are clearly indi- 
cated in the following prospectus. The paper 
is adapted to fill an important and useful de- 
partment in our public Journalism : 

" Prospectus of Thk Virginia Register. 

"The Virginia Register will be issued month* 
ly. containing the amount of reading matter 
originally designed for four weekly issues, via : 
(brty-eignt large octavo pages. It will be de- 
voted, as heretofore.' to Commerce, industry, 
static rights, and other subjects of permanent, 
interest — historical and political. The political 
policy of the Register will be governed by the 
principles set fo/th in the Kentucky and Vir- 
ginia Resolutions of '98— *99, and the resolution* 
adopted by the Senate of the United States 
on the 24th and 25th of May, 1S00, in regard 
to the rights of citizens of the several Slates 
in the Territories of the United States ; the 
duty of the Federal Government to protect 
those rights, &c. 

Terms $-.2 5o per dnnvm, payable in advance. 

'• Avertisements will be inserted at four dol- 
lars per quartet for each square of ten lines, or 
sixteen dollars per year, payable quarterly, in 
advance. 

"flST'Back numbers will be furnished to 
new subscribers." 



Thk Lost Principle; or, the Sectional Equilib- 
rium: How it was Created — How Destroyed — 
How it may be Restored. By u BarbAJK>88aJ' 

We have just received the above work from 
the publishers! As the title imports, the charac- 
ter of the weak is political, but the idea of a 
sectional equilibrium, (once secured by the com- 
promises of the Constitution, but now lost.) 
which forms -the staple of tho book, inrei 
with the charm of rioveity. and lends it an 
attractive interest not often found in p. 1 
disquisitions* 

The author — a young Virginian, who evinces 
fine taltfnttfj and industrious, discriminating re- 
search in the work before us — maintain- 
all the force of intelligent conviction, the 
t rinds of the State-Rights School of Politics, 
regarding the United States Government as a 
confederation of co-equal sovereign E 
contradistinction from a consolidated republic. 
He holds the Constitution to be at once tl. 
cification and the limitation of the pow 



512 



THE SOUTHERN PLANTER. 



[August 



the Federal Government — the letter of attorney, 
so to speak, by which it ks invested with specific 
delegated trusts, to be administered for the cotn- 
inoil defense and general welfare only, of the 
(O-States; to whom it is amenable for any in- 
fraction of the charter, and which Co-States may 
interpose to arrest the evil, when transcending 
the legitimate scope of its powers, by the en- 
forcement of snch mode and measure of redress 
as they may deem necessary to vindicate the 
sanctity and authority of their violated sovereign 
rights. Among so many sovereignties to be har- 
monized in one confederation, every want of 
homogeneity was to that extent a disturbance of 
the principle of equilibrium, and demanded 
such conciliation and concession as were neces- 
sary to remove all apprehension of the unequal 
and partial operation of the governmental sys- 
tem sought to be inaugurated. Hence the pro- 
vision for adjusting representation, so as to 
guard the rights of the small States against 
combinations of the large ones to oppress them; 
and hence also the reservation of equal State 
representation in the Senate, to shield their 
sovereign rights against possible and probable 
aggressions of popular representation in the 
other branch of Congress. These and many 
other such compromises, put in requisition to 
guard exposed or feeble interests from undue 
friction under the operation of the new system, 
have been patent to the observation of all who 
gave a moment's thought to the subject. But 
not so the principle of u sectional equilibrium.^ 
That has lain dormant, as latent heat in the 
system, until now brought to light by "Barba- 
rossa," and shown to have been all the while 
though unobserved, a vital force in the organi- 
zation of our Federal Government, and fully 
accounting for the fractional representation al- 
lowed under constitutional compact to the slaves 
pf the Southern States. This had before been 
regarded as a ratio compounded somewhat 
arbitrarily according to the manner in which 
jurors sometimes arrive at the satisfactory con- 
clusion, that exact justice or truth consists in 
the twelfth part of the aggregated or compound- 
ed opinions of that number of men— no more, 
no less. The loss of this sectional equilibrium, 
before we were conacioaa of its having once 
been adjusted, ns such, afford* melancholy proof 
of the utter futility of any attempt at securing 
permanent harmony out of elements so fluctuat* 
ing in their quantities and so discordant in their 
qualities as those which entered into this com- 
promise, and preserved it too, as only they could, 



so long as the definite proportions by which 
they were held in combination were undisturbed. 
How to restore the lost equilibrium between the 
North and the South we must leave to the en- 
quirer to find out by the careful perusal of the 
book, which time and space fail us to pursue 
farther, but which we intend to study carefully* 
and which, from the very cursory glance we 
have yet been able to take of it, we are inclined 
to recommend to our renders. 

Call on J. Woodhouse & Co., publishers, Rich- 
mond, Va. 



IIP C_} jELj '_L' -CV JU . 

Haste Not— Rest Not. 

'Without haste! without rest!" 
Bind the motto to thy breast! 
Bear it with thee as a spell ; 
Storm or sunshine, guard it well: 
Heed not flowers that round thee bloom: 
Bear it onward to the tomb ! 

Haste not — let no thoughtless deed 
Mar fore'er the spirits speed ; 
Ponder well and know the right, 
Onward, then, with all thy might: 
Haste not— years can ne'er atone 
For one reckless action done ! 

Rest not!— life is sweeping by, 

Go and dare before you die; 

Something mighty and sublime 

Leave behind to conquer time; 

Glorious 'tis to live for aye 

When these forms have passed away. 

'Haste not! — rest not!" Calmly wait; 
Meekly bear the storms of fate ; 
Duty be thy polar guide; 
Do the right, whate'er betide! 
Haste not! — rest not! Conflicts past, 
God shall crown thy work at last! 

Goethe. 



Things that Never Die, 

Sweet, gentle, kind and loving words, 

Although but spoke in jest, 
God knows are deeply stored within 

The glad receiver's breast: 
Like childhood's sweet and simple rhymes, 

Deep in the heart they lie — 
Yes, words of kindness, and of love, 

Are things that never die. 

Sweet, gentle fancies never die — 

They always leave behind 
Some well-beloved legacy, 

Stored deep within the mind ; 
Some happy thought, or pleasant dream. 

Which, though they may pass by, 
Yet leave an impress on the heart, 

That they can never die. 






.